DROUGHT FEEDING
AND MANAGEMENT
OF BEEF CATTLE
A GUIDE FOR FARMERS
AND LAND MANAGERS
2018
Published by the Victorian Government Department of Economic
Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, April 2018.
© The State of Victoria, Department of Economic Development,
Jobs, Transport and Resources, Melbourne 2018.
This publication is copyright. No part may be reproduced by any
process except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright
Act 1968.
Authorised by the Victorian Government 1 Spring Street, Melbourne
Victoria 3000 Australia
First edition 2002
Revised and reprinted March 2007
Revised and reprinted September 2015
Revised and reprinted April 2018
ISBN 978-1-74199-055-3 (print)
ISBN 978-1-74199-035-5 (internet)
For more information about Agriculture Services visit the website at
www.agriculture.vic.gov.au or call the Customer Service Centre on
136 186
Disclaimer
This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of
Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is
without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular
purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or
other consequence which may arise from you relying on any
information in this publication.
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
1
CONTENTS
List of Tables 4
Acknowledgements 5
Abbreviations 5
Chapter 1 – Preparing for drought 6
Drought Action Plan 6
Tips from past droughts 7
Management options to consider 7
Other considerations 9
In summary 9
Drought Action Plan template 10
Drought action planning check list 14
Chapter 2 – Water during a drought 15
Will you have enough water? 15
How to calculate how much water you have 16
Water quality 17
Salt content 17
Pollution 17
Algal blooms 17
Options to reduce water requirements 18
Reducing stock numbers 18
Relocating stock 18
Minimising evaporation 18
Reticulating from dams rather than allowing animals direct access 18
Protecting dams from wind-borne contamination 18
Actions to address a water shortage 18
Carting water 18
Sinking bores 18
Digging new dams 18
When seasonal conditions improve 19
Farmer tips from past droughts 19
Water testing 19
Online resources 19
Chapter 3 – Pasture management during drought periods 20
Assessing pasture availability 20
Pasture quality 21
Stock and pasture management at the end of a drought 22
Feeding management 22
Pasture recovery 22
Opportunity to improve pastures 23
Opportunity to control weeds 23
Need for fertiliser 23
Fodder crops 23
Estimated pasture survival 23
Assessing the need for resowing a perennial pasture 23
Agriculture Victoria
2
CONTENTS
Chapter 4 – Monitoring stock condition 25
Fat score descriptions 26
Visual assessment 26
Muscling 26
Target fat scores 26
Managing cattle condition 27
Chapter 5 – Choosing feeds 28
Understanding the components of a feed 28
Energy 28
Protein 28
Fibre 29
Dry matter 29
Other components of a feed analysis 29
How to sample for a feed analysis 30
Costing fodders on energy value 32
Other factors to consider when buying fodder 34
Grain processing 34
Storage, handling, feeding out 34
Availability 34
Cost of freight 34
Noxious weeds 34
Tips for buying hay 34
Drought feeding of stock – the risk of chemical residues 35
Chapter 6 – Feeding cattle 36
Nutritional requirements of beef cattle 36
Energy and protein requirements of various classes of cattle 37
Using the figures – feed budgeting 40
Tactical feed budget for use when some pasture is available 40
Pearson’s Square – for use when no pasture is available 43
Other considerations 45
Minerals 45
Calcium 45
Sodium 45
Buffers 45
Vitamins 45
Improving the feed value of low-quality feeds 45
Treating straw with urea to improve the protein level of the diet 45
Molasses as an energy source 46
Chapter 7 – Feeding grain to cattle 47
Introducing cattle to grain 47
Frequency of feeding 47
How to feed – trough or on the ground? 47
Changing a ration 48
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
3
Roughage (fibre) 48
Other grain additives 48
Processing grain 48
Grain poisoning 48
Other grain feeding problems 49
Calcium deficiency 49
Vitamin A deficiency 49
Urolithiasis 49
Polioencephalomalacia 49
Chapter 8 – Feeding in stock containment areas 50
Why use stock containment areas 50
When to use a stock containment area 50
Site selection 51
Design 52
Construction 53
Water 53
Feed 53
Stressful weather conditions 54
Releasing cattle 54
Animal health 54
Other considerations 54
Chapter 9 – Animal health and welfare 55
Health and welfare problems in beef herds in a drought 55
Classes of livestock affected 55
Grain feeding problems 56
Poisoning and chemical residues 56
Urea poisoning 56
The effect of disease on drought-affected cattle 56
Internal parasites (worms and fluke) 56
Lice 56
Bottlejaw 56
Coccidiosis 56
Pulpy kidney (enterotoxaemia) 57
Pneumonia and calf diphtheria 57
Pinkeye 57
Welfare considerations of drought 57
Chapter 10 – Options for young stock management 58
Early weaning of beef calves 58
Deciding when to wean 59
Pre-weaning 59
Weaning 59
Post-weaning 59
Creep feeding of beef calves 60
The type and level of feed 61
CONTENTS
Agriculture Victoria
4
CONTENTS
Chapter 11 – The feed value of unusual feedstuffs 62
Types of feeds 63
By-product energy concentrates 63
By-product protein concentrates 65
By-product roughage 65
Appendices 69
Appendix I – Weight of hay and silage bales 69
Appendix II – Energy tables and calculations 69
Appendix III – Tactical feed budget 70
Appendix IV – Pearson’s Square worksheet 71
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Animal water requirements, litres/animal/day 15
Table 2.2 Salt tolerance in drinking water for various classes of cattle 17
Table 3.1 Metabolisable energy (MJ ME/kgDM) supplied by different pasture qualities 21
Table 4.1 Fat score descriptions for manual fat scoring 26
Table 4.2 Minimum and desired fat scores for different classes of stock 27
Table 5.1 Energy and protein compositions of common livestock feeds 31
Table 5.2 Energy and protein compositions of common grains (whole and processed) 32
Table 5.3 Quick lookup table for costing fodder based on energy value 33
Table 6.1 Energy and protein requirements of steers and heifers (after weaning) 37
Table 6.2 Energy and protein requirements of cows, pregnant mature 38
Table 6.3 Energy and protein requirements of cows, with suckling calves 1-4 month old 38
Table 6.4 Energy and protein requirements of bulls 39
Table 6.5 Quantities for full hand feeding for common classes of stock 39
Table 7.1 Digestibility of whole versus processed grain 48
Table 10.1 Energy and protein requirements of calves of various liveweights 60
Table 10.2 Example diets for early-weaned calves 60
Table 11.1 Mean and range of canola hay and silage samples from the 2006-2007 season 66
Table 11.2 Energy and protein compositions of unusual feedstuffs 67-68
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
5
Acknowledgements
Agriculture Victoria thanks the following people
and organisations for their contribution to this
publication:
Phil Franklin, Fiona Baker, John Gibney,
John Bowman, Heather Field, Belinda Pritchard,
Ralph Behrendt, Dr Robert Suter, Kate Sargeant,
Dougal Purcell, Cheryl Graham, Ross Batten,
Tim Hollier, Dr Karin Morgan, Dr David Champness,
Emma Weatherly, Meat & Livestock Australia.
Abbreviations
BoM Bureau of Meteorology
cm centimetre
CP crude protein
CS condition score
DM dry matter
DSE dry sheep equivalent
EC electrical conductivity
FOO food on offer (in kg DM/ha)
g gram
IOD Indian Ocean Dipole
kg kilogram
L litre
m
2
square metre
ME metabolisable energy (energy units)
MJ megajoule
MLA Meat & Livestock Australia
mm millimetre
NDF neutral detergent fibre
NLIS National Livestock Identification Scheme
PIC Property Identification Code
ppm parts per million
SOI Southern Oscillation Index
t tonne
CHAPTER 1
Preparing for drought
Agriculture Victoria
6 Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought
Droughts are part of life for farming communities.
Early planning and decision making is important.
If decisions are left until a drought worsens, many
of the management options available early may
no longer be possible.
This chapter looks at how to prepare your farm,
including:
• makingplansearly
• knowingfeedsuppliesandstockrequirements
• understandingfarmwaterlevelsandstock
needs
• discussingyourdroughtstrategywithyour
family.
The first step is to prepare a Drought Action Plan.
By listing the farm’s financial and physical
resources the effects of various strategies, both
short and long term, can be calculated.
The next step is to estimate when you think the
weather pattern is likely to change. This will affect
your calculations on how long you will be feeding
cattle, how much it will cost and whether you will
decide to sell stock or not. It is best to over-
estimate the time you expect to hand-feed stock
to be on the safe side. For example, you need to
add a few weeks beyond an expected autumn
break to allow for the new pasture to germinate
and grow, plus continue supplementation to allow
for the transition from dry feed to green pasture.
In previous droughts, cattle have survived the dry
summer months only to be lost with the sudden
change to a green feed diet after the autumn
break.
For long-term weather predictions see the
following Bureau of Meteorology link:
www.bom.gov.au
Useful information can also be found at
agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-
management/newsletters-and-updates/the-
break,-the-fast-break-and-the-very-fast-break-
newsletters
Drought Action Plan
Think about the following questions when
developing your Drought Action Plan.
What is your current financial situation?
• Costoutvariousfeedingorsellingscenarios.
• Preparea12-monthcashowbudget.
• Usepartialbudgetingtoexplorevarious
options.
Do you need financial advice?
• Seearuralnancialcounsellor(see
www.agriculture.gov.au/ag-farm-food/drought/
assistance/rural-financial-counselling-service).
• Discussyourplanswithyouraccountant.
• Contactyourbankmanager.
How widespread is the drought?
• Issuitableagistmentavailable?Youneedto
check fences, water supplies and health status
of potential agistment properties.
• Isdrovinganoption?Whataretheregulations
on droving in your local councils?
Water supplies (see Chapter 2)
• Whatisyourfarm’scurrentwaterstorage
capacity?
• Whatarethestockwaterrequirementsover
the summer months?
• Doyouhaveadequatewatersuppliesto
survive a drought?
• Canyouseekwaterfromothersourcesbefore
supplies dry up (e.g. creeks, bores or outlying
dams)?
Will you feed for maintenance or production
targets (see Chapters 4, 5 and 6)?
• Whatareyourfatscoretargetsforthecow
herd for joining, calving and weaning?
• Whatarethefeedingneedsofvariousclasses
of cattle?
• Whicharetheprioritymobsforthebestfeed?
• Whichclassesofcattledoyouconsiderselling?
Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought 7
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Can you feed cattle for long periods?
(see Chapters 7, 8, 10)
• Doyouhavetheequipmenttofeedcattle:silos,
feed wagons, grain feeding equipment or can
you improvise, borrow or buy equipment?
• Doyouhavethelabourortimetofeed?
• Howlongwillyouhavetofeedandwhatwillit
cost? Are grain, hay, silage, pellets or other
feedstuffs available?
• Canyouconstructastockcontainmentarea
for some or all of your cattle?
• Doyouhavethefeedbudgetskills?
Should you reduce your cattle numbers?
• Whatpricesarecattlemakingnow?
• Whatpriceswillcattlebeafterthedrought?
• Whateffectwillreducedstocknumbershave
on your overall feeding costs and your long-
term restocking costs?
Sustainability and protection of pastures
and soil (see Chapter 3)
• Whateffectwillyourstrategyhaveonyour
pastures and soils?
• Whateffectwillyouractionplanhaveonyour
long-term viability?
• Howdoyouprotectnativevegetationfrom
cattle damage during the drought?
Cattle need to be adequately fed, have continual
access to clean fresh water, have access to shelter
if required, be kept healthy and allowed to express
their natural behaviour. Allowing stock to starve is
not an option and is an offence under Victorian
law.
YourDroughtActionPlanshouldbeexibleto
allow for changes in circumstances. For example,
you may sell a certain class of stock or buy fodder
only if conditions do not improve by a certain date.
Having a plan of action will greatly reduce the
stress on you and your family as you will all be
working towards specific aims.
Tips from past droughts
Farmers who successfully survived the 1982 and
1994 droughts were asked what they did to ensure
they got through. In summary, they:
• madeplansandtookactionsearly
• didsimplebudgetsforvariousfeedingand
selling options
• knewtheirhaysuppliesandwerepreparedto
ration roughage
• preparedcashowbudgetsfor2-3years
• obtainedadviceoncurrentmarketpricesfor
fodder, grain and livestock to enable them to
make informed decisions
• revieweddecisionsregularly
• actedquicklyanddecisively
• lookedforopportunities
• remainedpositive
• plannedaholiday
• lookedoutforfamilyandfriends
• werepreparedtousestockcontainmentareas
to preserve their pastures and soil.
Management options to consider
Agistment
Sending cattle away on agistment can be a cheap
solution to the feeding problem; any cattle left at
home will have less competition for feed.
Before agisting cattle check that the property
they are going to has:
• securefencingandcattle-handlingfacilities
• agoodquantityofqualityfeed
• goodwatersupply
• supervisiontominimisetheftandidentify
health problems.
Only cattle strong enough to travel should be
agisted. It is an advantage to have the agistment
area close to markets so cattle do not have to be
brought home again.
Sell stock
If you choose this course of action, the crucial
management decisions will be the timing of the
sale and the type and number of cattle to be sold.
Any drought inevitably triggers a period of intense
selling with large saleyard yardings and resultant
depressed prices. Plan to sell as early as possible
to avoid the most depressed prices and while the
cattle are still in good condition.
The best policy is to sell the less-productive
animals, so that at the end of the drought you will
still have a herd of high-producing animals.
8 Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought
Agriculture Victoria
Generally, the best cattle to retain through a
drought are young breeders of good quality
because these will be difficult and expensive to
replace at the end of a prolonged drought. They
will also provide the basis for bringing a beef herd
back into production.
The following sets out the steps of a selling policy
to retain a breeding herd:
• Pregnancytestandsellallempty,late-calving
and low-producing cows.
• Sellinferiorbulls.
• Sellagedcows,agedbullsandlightweight
heifers.
• Sellnon-breedingcattle:weaners,yearling
steers and bullocks. Growing stock can be
expensive to feed because of their high energy
and protein demands.
• Weancalvesoverthreemonthsofageandsell
or feed separately.
• Progressivelyreducethebreedingcowherd.
Reassess the cow herd and sell the poorest
performingcowsandheifers.Youngbreeders
(2-5 years) are the most important to retain.
Feed costs, saleyard prices and expected stock
water supplies need to be assessed each time you
decide how many stock to sell.
Vendor declarations must be provided with all
cattle sold. Vendor declarations are available from
Meat and Livestock Australia and can be ordered
online at www.mla.com.au
Taxation can have an important bearing on your
selling plans. Its impacts, especially if a large part
of the herd is to be sold, need to be determined
before the stock are sold, particularly where low
‘cost price’ valuations are used for taxation
purposes. Speak to your accountant about the
possibility of spreading the income over a five-
year period if the cattle sale was forced due to
drought conditions.
Feed stock
Drought feeding of cattle is most efficient if the
stock are segregated into various classes so that
they can be fed according to their nutritional
requirements.
These classes could be:
• early-weanedcalves(lessthansixmonths)
• weaners(6-12months)
• yearlings(12-18months)
• cowswithcalvesatfoot
• drycows
• bulls
• steersandbullocks(over18months).
Stock requirements are discussed in Chapter 6.
Developing feed budgets before and during a
drought is key to minimising the financial impact
on your enterprise.
It is usually more efficient to maintain stock at a
productive level than feed to increase their weight
and fat score. Cows maintained in fat score 3 or
better will be more fertile come joining time and
result in more live calves on the ground when the
season improves.
Short-term finishing rations may be justified for
stock suitable for sale, such as weaners or steers
for domestic markets. However, budgets need to
be carefully calculated as the profit margins are
generally small during droughts.
Monitoring and recording cattle liveweight and fat
scores gives a guide to the success of your
feeding program and allows for ration adjustment
and cost savings.
Planning is needed for when the drought finally
breaks to ensure the cattle are slowly transitioned
from a drought ration to the emerging green feed
diet. For the benefit of both the cattle and the
emerging pastures, the drought ration should be
maintained for a few weeks, gradually
transitioning the stock to the green feed, which
allows the rumen microbes and the animals’
digestive systems to adjust to the new diet.
Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought 9
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Other considerations
Requirementsforstockleavingthefarm
All cattle in Victoria must be tagged with an NLIS
cattle tag before leaving their property of birth. All
movements must be accompanied by a properly
completed National Vendor Declaration
(www.mla.com.au/lqs or ring 1800 683 111).
Property-to-property movements need to be
recorded on the NLIS database.
Fit to travel
Stock must be in a fit condition if they are to be
transported, whether for slaughter or to another
farm. An animal is not fit if it:
• isnotstrongenoughtoundertakethejourney
• cannotwalknormally,bearingweightonalllegs
• isseverelyemaciatedorvisiblydehydrated
• issufferingfromseverevisibledistressorinjury
• isblindinbotheyes
• isinlatepregnancy.
For the full publication ‘Is it fit to load’ go to:
www.mla.com.au/News-and-resources/
Publication-details?pubid=5873
Droving
Another source of off-farm feed is along roadsides.
Only some councils allow droving stock. Legal
restrictions and local environmental considerations
applying to this practice vary between councils
and may change. The risk of disease spread also
needs to be considered. Check with the councils
involved before starting this option.
Humane destruction
If some classes of stock are unsaleable, and no
other option is feasible, the animals should be
humanely destroyed. In past droughts, councils
have made facilities available to dispose of
carcasses.
Information on appropriate methods of
destruction can be obtained from animal health
staff from your local Agriculture Victoria office.
Purchasing cattle after the drought
To minimise the risk of introducing disease, cattle
should be accompanied by an animal health
statement. completed by the person you are
buying the cattle from. The animal health
statement pro forma can be downloaded from
www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/toolkit/declarations-
and-statements/ The statement will give you
information on the cattle’s pestivirus and Johne’s
disease status, treatments they may have
received such as worm and liver fluke drenches
and any current vaccinations they have received.
In summary
It is your legal responsibility to ensure that
livestock do not starve or become distressed
during a drought. Doing nothing is not an option
open to you in the long term. Even in the short
term, it is of questionable value.
Youmaybetemptedtodonothinginthehope
that a poor season will not turn into a drought. In
the meantime, paddock feed diminishes, the
condition and value of stock slip and feed prices
soar. These changes close off many of the options
available to you earlier in a drought.
The message is to plan early and set deadlines to
activate specific actions.
Remember, it is better to plan ahead. If the season
happens to improve or was not as dry as
predicted, you can always put the plan to one side
and continue with a normal season program.
10 Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought
Agriculture Victoria
Class of
stock
Herd Name Number Current
fat score
DSE
rating
Total
DSE
(number
x DSE)
High priority
(feed for
production)
Medium
priority
(feed for
maintenance)
Low priority
(hold or sell)
Market
options
Comments
Weaners
Calves at
foot
Heifers
Steers
1st calf
heifers
3-5 year-old
cows
6-year-old
plus cows
Bulls
Total
Drought Action Plan template
Use this template to clarify your farm situation and help develop your Drought Action Plan
Farm Name Farm area (ha) Month/Year
Locality Time of calving Time of lambing
Cattle
Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought 11
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Class of
stock
Mob Name Number Current
condition
score
DSE
rating
Total
DSE
(number
x DSE)
High priority
(feed for
production)
Medium
priority
(feed for
maintenance)
Low priority
(hold or sell)
Market
options
Comments
Weaners
Lambs at
foot
Wethers
Maiden
Ewes
Adult (>2 yr)
Ewes
Old age 6 yr
plus Ewes
Rams
Total
Sheep
Class of
stock
Group Name Number Current
condition
score
DSE
rating
Total
DSE
(number
x DSE)
High priority
(feed for
production)
Medium
priority
(feed for
maintenance)
Low priority
(hold or sell)
Market
options
Comments
Horses
Goats
Alpaca
Other
Total
Other livestock
12 Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought
Agriculture Victoria
Storage
type and
location
Feed type
(grain or
hay)
Quantity:
(number of
bales)
Weight of
bales (kg)
Total
quantity
(tonnes)
Estimated
energy (ME)
Crude
protein %
Fibre NDF % Comments
Silo 1
Silo 2
Silo 3
Hayshed 1
Hayshed 2
Hayshed 3
Silage pit 1
Silage pit 2
Silage pit 3
Total
What feeds are on hand
Paddock name Area Average kg/DM/ha Estimatedquantity Comments
Total of farm
Paddock feed on hand
Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought 13
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Water Source Current
Volumn
(ML)
Access
Yes/No
Quality
suitable
Yes/No
Salinity
suitable
Yes/No
Estimated
weekly use
Estimate
number of
weeks
Estimated
run out date
Comments
Dam 1
Dam 2
Dam 3
Dam 4
Bore 1
Bore 2
Creek
River
Town supply
Neighbouring
supply
Total
What water supplies are on hand
Paddock feed summary
Number of hectares X Quantity of pasture = Total kg pasture on hand divide by 1,000 = Tonnes DM/farm
X = divide by 1,000 =
14 Chapter 1 / Preparing for drought
Agriculture Victoria
Drought action planning check list
Weekly water consumption
Number of cattle X Daily consumption X 7 days = Weekly consumption for cattle
X litres/day X 7 days = litres /week
Number of sheep X Daily consumption X 7 days = Weekly consumption for sheep
X litres/day X 7 days = litres /week
House and garden X Daily consumption X 7 days = Weekly consumption for house
X litres/day X 7 days = litres /week
Total weekly water consumption litres/week
Discuss options with:
Family members Yes/No
Accountant Yes/No
Bank manager Yes/No
Stock agent Yes/No
Farm staff Yes/No
Neighbours Yes/No
Meat and wool extension staff Yes/No
Feed merchant Yes/No
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Chapter 2 / Water during a drought 15
CHAPTER 2
Water during a drought
This chapter will help you determine stock water
needs across a year and the options for
managing on-farm water resources.
Key messages
• Dowaterbudgetsearly,basedonyour
experience with water supplies, how much
water you have available and how much your
stock will need.
• Haveawaterplanthatconsiderstheworst
case scenarios.
• Evaporationratescanbeveryhighoverdry
summers and small dams are inefficient water
storages.
• Considerwaterreticulationsystemsand
transferrequirementsbetweenstorages,
particularly for containment areas.
• Themajorthreattowaterqualityduring
drought is high levels of salt, although algae
and animal manure can foul water following
heavy summer rains or strong winds.
• Watercanbetestedforsalinityandother
minerals to check suitability for various
classes of stock, as well as for toxicity of algal
blooms.
• Cowswilldrinkupto100litresofwateraday.
Water is essential for animal survival and
performance. Poor water quality is a common
cause of under-preforming animals. Cattle must
be provided with access to good quality water
(preferably from troughs) at all times.
Will you have enough water?
Knowing your property and how water supplies
perform in times of drought is essential
information for the planning phase.
Calculating the total water available and the total
required by stock will tell you how many stock, and
of what class, you can carry through a dry period.
To do a water budget, list all the dams by paddock
and calculate the water available in each one. Add
these quantities together to find out the total water
available on your farm. Using this figure and the
total water required by stock, based on Table 2.1,
determine how many animals you can carry through.
Table2.1:Waterrequirements,litres/animal/day.
Stock type Consumption
(L/day)
Sheep
Weaners up to 4
Adult dry sheep up to 6
Ewes with lambs up to 10
Cattle
Weaners (250-300 kg) up to 55
Dry stock up to 80
Lactating first calf heifers
(350-400 kg)
up to 90
Lactating cows (500 kg) up to 100
Horses up to 50
For daily average and yearly as well as winter and
summer stock drinking requirements for cattle
and other livestock types refer to ‘Managing farm
water supplies’ agriculture.vic.gov.au/__data/
assets/pdf_file/0003/319386/2016-DEDJTR-Farm-
Water-Supplies-A5-web.pdf
Animalrequirements
The amount of water an animal requires will
depend on a number of factors, including:
• theclassofanimal(alactatingcowwillrequire
significantly more water than a dry cow or
yearling steer)
• thetemperatureandseason(cattleconsume
significantly more water in summer and during
high temperatures)
• thefeedonoffer(grainsareadryfeed,while
pasture contains some moisture)
• thequalityofthewater(waterwithhighersalt
levels will increase consumption).
Periods of high temperatures (>38°C) will increase
an animal’s water requirements beyond the levels
in Table 2.1.
16 Chapter 2 / Water during a drought
Agriculture Victoria
How to calculate how much water you have
Step 1
Calculate the surface area of the dam. For both rectangular and round dams, surface area can be
estimated by multiplying the length by the width of the dam. Example: 40 m wide x 20 m long = 800 m
2
.
For triangular-shaped dams, surface area can be estimated by (width x length) ÷ 2.
Picture source – www.water.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/547237/licensing_rights_harvest_
dams_what_size_are_your_existing_dams.pdf
triangular rectangular round
width x length
2
Surface area =
length
width
length
width
length
width
Step 2
Use the following formula to calculate the volume
of the dam in cubic metres.
Volume (m
3
) = 0.4 x Surface area x Depth
The 0.4 conversion factor takes into account the
slope of the sides of the water storage.
Example: Volume = 0.4 x 800 m
2
x 5 m = 1,600 m
3
To convert this to megalitres (ML) divide by 1,000 =
1.6 ML
Step 3
Evaporation can be one of the biggest losses from
farm dams, especially small or shallow dams. For
example, average annual evaporation figures for
farm dams based on Ballarat evaporation data
are:
• asmallfarmdam3mdeepwouldlosearound
60%
• asmalltomedium-sizeddam4mdeepwould
lose around 43%
• amediumdam5mdeepwouldlosearound37%
• alargedam7mdeepwouldlosearound27%
In the hotter northern parts of the state, these
figures could be higher. Although these are annual
estimates, most evaporation will occur between
October and April. Seepage into the water table
may also need to be taken into account. Variation
between dams can be significant; experience will
guide you as to which dams cannot be relied on to
hold water for long and it may be worthwhile to
graze paddocks with unreliable water storage
early. Regular monitoring or prior knowledge of a
dam’s capacity to hold water is necessary to
accurately estimate how long your dam water will
last. More depth may need to be taken off to
account for this seepage.
Example: 1.6 ML dam less 43% in evaporation (not
including seepage) as 688,000 litres (0.69 ML) lost
= 912,000 litres (0.91 ML) available.
Step 4
Use Table 2.1 to calculate the daily requirements of
all animals that rely on the dam for their water.
Example: 200 spring-calving cows consuming
100 litres a day will consume 20,000 litres/day.
Divide the total dam capacity by the daily water
usage.
Example: 912,000 litres/20,000 litres = 46 days of
water available.
An online farm water calculator can be used to
calculate stock water requirements and water
available on farm. See www.agriculture.vic.gov.au/
watercalculator
Chapter 2 / Water during a drought 17
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Water quality
Having water of a quality that is ‘fit for purpose’ is
important. Water quality can affect plant growth,
livestock health, soil quality, farm equipment and
infrastructure and domestic use.
The quality of a water source depends on the
season and weather conditions. Evaporation
increases the concentration of salts while a flush
of water dilutes salts but may increase sediment,
and runoff of fertilisers, manure or nutrients.
Water quality should generally be visually
monitored weekly to check for any algal blooms,
clarity of the water (how cloudy or muddy the
water appears) and dead wildlife (such as ducks)
or livestock that may have become stuck in
unfenced water sources. In hotter weather or
periods of prolonged moisture stress, daily visual
checks are preferable.
The major threat to water quality during drought
is high levels of salt, although algae and animal
manure can foul water following heavy summer
rains or strong winds.
Salt content
Salinity is a major water quality issue in areas
where accumulated salts are mobilised in the
landscape and make their way into waterways
and dams. Salinity refers to all the mineral salts
present in the water, including sodium, calcium,
magnesium, chloride, sulphate and carbonate.
Evaporation of water sources increases the
concentrations of salts and the problems
associated with them. During a drought year, low
water levels can result in doubling of salt
concentrations over summer.
Table 2.2 lists salt levels in drinking water that can
be tolerated by various classes of stock. In general,
the salt content of water should not exceed
9,600 ppm and the magnesium level should not
exceed 600 ppm.
Table 2.2 Salt tolerance in drinking water for various classes of cattle presented as parts per million
(ppm) and units of electrical conductivity (EC units).
Water
Category
Classes of stock EC Units
(µs/cm)
Total
soluble
salts (ppm)
Magnesium
(ppm)
1 Suitable for cattle of all ages <5,000 <3,200 <400
2 Generally unsuitable for calves and weaner
stock if they are unaccustomed to the water.
Suitable for dry, mature cattle.
5,000–
10,000
3,200–
6,400
<600
3 Caution needed with cattle if they are
unaccustomed to the water.
10,000–
15,000
6,400–
9,600
<600
4 Generally unsuitable for all cattle. >15,000 >9,600 Any level
5 Generally unsuitable for all cattle. Any level >9,600 >600
Pollution
During the 1982-83 and 2015-16 droughts, many
dams in Victoria were severely polluted by manure
and dried vegetation blowing from bare paddocks
or by summer rainfall run-off. The water turned
black and gave off a putrid smell. Stock stopped
drinking it.
Retention of ground cover on paddocks adjacent
to dams will help avoid this problem developing.
Algal blooms
Algal blooms are common over summer months
when water temperatures rise as dams become
shallow and the levels of phosphorus and nitrogen
in the water build up.
Most algal blooms are not toxic. Some blue-green
algae, however, produce toxins that can have
serious health implications for humans, animals
and birds drinking or coming in contact with the
water. It can kill animals within a few hours of
ingestion.
Blue-green algae forms a scum that looks like
green acrylic paint and leaves sky blue marks on
rocks or plants around the edge of the dam.
If you suspect you have a blue-green algal bloom:
• Isolateallstockfromthedamorwatersupply.
• Collectasamplefortestingbyawater
laboratory (use gloves – don’t allow the water
to come in contact with skin).
• Contactaveterinarianifanimalsshow
symptoms of poisoning (sudden death, loss of
appetite, breathing difficulties, muscle twitches,
weakness, scours, photosensitisation – any
white areas of skin become swollen and
reddish). In cases of blue-green algal
poisoning, green staining may be seen on the
muzzle, feet or legs of poisoned stock.
18 Chapter 2 / Water during a drought
Agriculture Victoria
• ContactAgricultureVictoriaforfurtheradvice
on controlling the algal bloom. See agriculture.
vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-management/
blue-green-algae-issues/managing-blue-
green-algae-in-farm-water-supplies for further
information.
Options to reduce water
requirements
Reducing stock numbers
• Whatareyourcorestocknumbers?
• Howmanydoyouwanttokeep?
• Howmanydoyouneedtokeep?
• Howmanycanyouaffordtokeep?
• Canyouagistsome?
Relocating stock
Reducing the energy stock expend accessing feed
can reduce their water requirements. To reduce
this energy expenditure, it may be necessary to
relocate the stock to a smaller paddock or a stock
containment area where movement is more
restricted and deliver the herd’s daily feed
requirements to them. If water is not troughed to
this area, you will need to provide enough water
daily for stock requirements – use Table 2.1 to
calculate stock water requirements.
Minimising evaporation
To conserve water and maintain good water
quality, one large deep dam is better than
numerous shallow dams.
It may be advantageous to pump the contents of
a number of smaller dams into a single larger dam
to minimise evaporative loss and save water.
Reticulating from dams rather than
allowing animals direct access
Reticulating from dams avoids pugging and
bogging problems and allows a more efficient use
of the water. Reticulation systems must be simple,
reliable and have sufficient capacity to meet peak
demands.
Site new troughs, tanks and pipes to suit future
needs.
Protecting dams from wind-borne
contamination
If possible, keep adequate ground cover on
adjacent paddocks to prevent material blowing
into the dam.
If ground cover is already low, fencing can be used
to trap blowing material before it reaches the
water. A close-wired fence on the windward side is
a worthwhile investment.
Once material is in the dam, aeration of the water
is necessary to improve its condition and make it
more acceptable to stock. This is best done by
pumping to a tank and reticulating to a trough. If
aerated water is returned to the dam, the
organisms growing on the organic material will
quickly use all the oxygen again.
Actions to address a water
shortage
Carting water
Due to the volumes of water required and the
frequency it needs to be supplied (usually daily),
carting water is a labour-intensive operation.
Consider whether you have the labour, equipment
and time available to commit to this option.
Seepage and evaporation from earthen dams
during extended dry periods means it is not
generally feasible to put carted water into these
dams. It is best to put carted water into a tank
system and reticulate the water to troughs for the
stock to access.
Be aware of the quality of the water source the
water is being carted from. During droughts, water
sources such as bores and streams may become
quite salty, affecting the stock’s willingness to
drink the water. Stream sources may also become
quite stagnant resulting in contamination from
algae and animal manures, particularly following
heavy summer rains.
A dam that cannot provide enough drinkable
stock water five or more years out of 10 is not
considered a reliable water source.
Sinking bores
Investigate likely water yields and quality before
drilling emergency bores. Consult your relevant
water authority if you are considering sinking a
bore as you will need a bore construction licence.
For more information and to apply for a licence
and permission to take and use ground water, visit
waterregister.vic.gov.au/water-trading/my-water
or contact your relevant Rural Water Corporation.
Digging new dams
Do not dig a new dam when soil moisture is low.
Only build earth dams when soil is moist enough
for maximum compaction. A permit is required to
dig a new dam on a waterway.
Seek advice and permission before construction
from your Catchment Management Authority.
Chapter 2 / Water during a drought 19
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
When seasonal conditions
improve
Build a contingency plan for the next dry period
so you don’t get caught unprepared. Take steps to
drought-proof your property and its enterprises.
Farmer tips from past droughts
• Haveawaterplanandundertakeawater
audit, taking into consideration the worst case
scenario.
• Calculatestockwaterrequirementsandwater
available using the online farm water
calculator www.agriculture.vic.gov.au/
watercalculator
• Assessreliabilityofallyourwatersources.A
dam that cannot provide enough drinkable
stock water five or more years out of 10 is not
considered reliable.
• Havealarge,fencedcatchmentdamonyour
property and reticulate from this to troughs.
• Setupyourreticulationsystemproperlyfrom
the start. Do it in stages if necessary.
• Prepareearlyandensureyouhaveany
necessary permits in place well before summer.
• Planttreesstrategicallytoreduceevaporation
from dams.
Water testing
The best way to be certain about the quality of
your water is to have it tested. The following
laboratories test water, but there may be others.
Check that the laboratory you use is accredited
by the National Association of Testing Authorities
(NATA) for the test you are requesting. NATA is the
authority that provides independent assurance of
technical competence through a network of best
practice industry experts.
SGS
(NATA accredited)
10/585 Blackburn Road, Notting Hill
(03) 9574 3200
Irrigation and stock water analysis available
(salinity (EC), calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron,
total oxidised nitrogen, pH, chloride, total hardness
and other chemistry). Blue-green algae testing is
also available at an additional cost.
Microbiological testing for human consumption is
available in Shepparton (03) 5821 1708 and
Mitcham (03) 9874 1988.
Water Quality Laboratory
(NATA accredited)
Deakin University, Warrnambool
(03) 5563 3481
Email: wql-info@deakin.edu.au
Water testing service – Water chemistry (NATA
accredited) and blue-green algae (not NATA
accredited).
ALS Water Resources Group
(NATA accredited)
22 Dalmore Drive, Caribbean Business Park,
Scoresby
(03) 8756 8000
Email: melbournewrg@alsglobal.com
(Regional laboratories in Wangaratta, Bendigo,
Traralgon and Geelong – basic water testing only).
Domestic, stock and irrigation packages available
(includes pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity,
calcium, potassium, magnesium, hardness,
sodium, iron, manganese, nitrate, chloride, sodium
absorption ration) and blue-green algae.
Online resources
Water
Farm Water Solutions (Package) at
www.agriculture.vic.gov.au/farmwater
Dams
agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-
management/managing-dams/how-long-will-my-
dam-water-last
agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-
management/managing-dams/organic-pollution-
in-farm-dams
Farm water calculator
www.agriculture.vic.gov.au/watercalculator
Waterquality
agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-
management/soil-and-water/water/farm-water-
solutions/technical-resources/managing-farm-
water-supplies-in-drought
Water supply for stock containment areas
agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-
management/managing-dams/water-supply-for-
stock-containment-areas
CHAPTER 3
Pasture management
during drought periods
Agriculture Victoria
20 Chapter 3 / Pasture management during drought periods
This chapter looks at methods of assessing
pastures to determine how much feed is available
and also at management considerations to get the
best from the pasture system during tough times.
Key Messages:
• Availabilityofpastureneedstobeassessedin
kg DM/ha for use in feed budgets.
• Defergrazingafterthedroughtbreaks.
Grazingtooearlyfurtherdamagesthegrasses
and will affect their persistence.
• Weedmanagementisimportantintherstfew
months after the drought breaks, otherwise
they may significantly reduce future pasture
production.
• Assessperennialpasturesafterthedrought
breaks for the percentage of perennial grass,
annual grass, broadleaf weeds and bare
ground. This will give an indication of whether
pastures need resowing.
• Ifsowingintopasture,applyasmallamountof
phosphorus fertiliser, 10-20 kg/ha phosphorus,
theequivalentof114-227kgsuper/ha.
The need for supplementary feeding and the
quantity required will depend on the availability
and quality of the pasture. The following section
provides a simple guide to help you estimate
pasture quantity and quality to determine the
contribution of the pasture as part of a ration.
Assessing pasture availability
The quantity of pasture in a paddock is measured
in kilograms of dry matter per hectare (kg DM/ha).
It is the weight of pasture from a hectare if it was
cut to ground level and completely dried to
remove all moisture.
Pasture quantity is determined by measuring the
average height of the pasture in centimetres
(using a stick or ruler) and calibrating the height
to kg DM/ha using Figure 3.1 as a guide. When
using this method, the first 0.5 cm should be
excluded from the measurement.
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
3000+
2500
2200
1900
1600
1200
700
Pasture height (cm)
Approx
pasture quantity
(kg DM/ha)
Figure 3.1: The relationship between green pasture
height and pasture availability.
The pasture quantity figure can then be used in
feed budgets. Feed budgets allow you to use the
energy content (or quality) of the pasture to help
determine if enough feed is available to meet
production targets (maintenance or growth or
lactation, etc).
Another way to assess pasture quantity is the ‘cut
and dry’ method. This will give the most accurate
estimate of quantity.
• makeasquare33x33cm(youcouldusewire
or PVC pipe or small gauge poly pipe using
corner joiners)
• take10,33x33cmpasturecuts(totheground)
from the paddock
• dryeachsampleinapaperbaginthe
microwave – place a glass of water in the
microwave during the drying process to stop
bag/sample from burning
• drysamplefor1minute,removeandweigh
• dryforanotherminute,removeandweigh
• continuedryingandweighinguntilthereisno
change in weight
• multiplytheaverageweight(g)ofthesample
by 100 to get the kg DM/ha.
Chapter 3 / Pasture management during drought periods 21
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Figure 3.2: 1,700 kg dry matter, 55% digestibility.
Pasture quality
Pasture quality is determined by the digestibility
of the green and dead herbage, clover content
and the proportion of dead herbage.
Digestibility is the proportion of the pasture eaten
that is retained by the grazing animal. For example,
if green pasture has a digestibility of 70%, it
means 70% of the pasture eaten will be used by
the cattle and 30% will pass out as faeces, so if the
cattle eat 10 kg of pasture, 7 kg will be utilised and
3 kg excreted. A highly digestible feed will be
digested faster, allowing for greater intake and
greater animal production.
Protein content of the pasture is also important. If
it is too low it can limit the performance of some
classes of stock. The protein level of dry pasture
will range from 5% to 8% of dry matter. The protein
level of green pasture ranges from 12% to 30% of
dry matter (depending on the stage of growth and
the amount of clover present).
Pastures with high digestibility will also be high in
energy (see Table 3.1). Other factors that influence
quality of pasture include:
• proportionsofdeadandgreenherbageofthe
same species (quality gradually declines as
pasture ages from the vegetative to
reproductive state
• differencesbetweenpasturespecies.
There is often little difference between annual and
perennial grasses early in the growing season.
Towards the end of the growing season, however,
annuals such as silver grass and barley grass
quickly decline in quality when they produce seed
heads and die. Perennial grasses maintain higher
quality longer and usually have some green
material present.
Legumes are particularly high in protein and
usually have roughly the same energy value as
perennial grasses. Animals gain weight faster
when grazing legume pastures compared to a
grass pasture with the same pasture availability.
Figure 3.3: 1,000 kg dry matter, 60% digestibility.
Table3.1:Metabolisableenergy(MJME/kgDM)suppliedbydifferentpasturequalities.
Pasture Description Digestibility Energy (MJ ME/kgDM)
Dry stalks 50% 6.5
Dry grass and leaf 55% 7.5
Late flowering 60% 8
Mid flowering, green and dead 65% 9
Late vegetative 70% 10
Active green growth 75% 10.5
22 Chapter 3 / Pasture management during drought periods
Agriculture Victoria
Stock and pasture management
at the end of a drought
In previous droughts, some of the worst stock
losses have occurred immediately after the drought
has broken. It is important that the feeding
management of sheep and cattle is carefully
planned and supervised over the weeks following
the end of the drought.
Stock will spend a lot of energy roaming around
paddocks chasing the short ‘green pick’ that
quickly appears. Although this green pick is highly
nutritious, the quantity that stock can eat soon
after germination is not great and may be far less
than their maintenance requirements.
Stock need time to adapt from grain feeding to
eating pasture. It takes 2-3 weeks for the
population of digestive organisms in the rumen of
cattle to adjust to digesting pasture rather than
grain. Sudden changes from high grain rations to
green pasture can cause digestive disturbances.
There may be stock problems if the pasture is
dominated by particular weeds. Nitrate poisoning
is common in pastures dominated by capeweed
and clover early in the season. Do not allow
hungry stock free access to these types of
pastures. Strip graze the paddock where practical
and ensure stock have ad lib access to hay.
The arrival of drought-breaking rains can also be
accompanied by cold and windy weather. These
conditions place added stress on stock that are
already suffering from a lengthy drought.
Feeding management
Feeding should be continued for 2-3 weeks
beyond the end of the drought. Stock should be
restricted to small areas for that time to allow a
wedge of feed to grow ahead of them.
Wean stock off grain over 2-3 weeks and give
them access to some green pick to enable their
digestive systems to readjust to the green feed.
Cold and windy conditions associated with
drought-breaking rains may increase the
maintenance requirements of the stock. The
rations fed over the 2-3 week period should be
increased by about 20% above drought rations.
Pasture recovery
The effect of drought on a pasture will depend on
the management and grazing pressure to which it
is subjected relative to the rainfall. There are
significant differences between species in their
ability to withstand the combined effects of heavy
grazing pressure and reduced rainfall.
The extent to which pastures recover after a
drought depends largely on when the drought-
breaking rains are received. If the drought breaks
with a ‘normal’ autumn break, the pasture should
recover quickly – providing there are adequate
numbers of viable seeds to germinate or there are
drought-tolerant perennial species present.
Sufficient follow-up rains are needed to keep
pastures growing vigorously. A delayed break, or
lower-than-average rainfall in the autumn, will
impair the pasture recovery rate. The effect of
drought on irrigated pastures will depend on the
availability and frequency of watering.
Annual species
Annual grasses, such as annual ryegrass, will have
reduced seed set during a drought, resulting in
lower density in pastures the following year.
Lack of competition from favourable species may
allow undesirable annual grasses such as silver
grass and barley grass to come back strongly,
even if there is less seed available for germination.
Spray programs later in the year may be required
to control undesirable annual grasses.
Sub clover or medic should have sufficient
residual hard seed in the soil to produce a good
sward after drought, unless the clover or medic
content has been poor for some years before.
Bare soil conditions and an early break will favour
their germination and it is not uncommon for
these annual legumes to return to a similar or
greater percentage of the sward than before the
drought.
Annual weeds such as capeweed, erodium,
Patterson’s curse and thistles will be more
prominent after a drought. These broadleaf weeds
tend to grow bigger with less competition. If
capeweed is dominant, there is a possibility of
nitrate poisoning of stock. This can be prevented
by not introducing hungry stock to capeweed-
dominant pastures.
These species are favoured by bare ground at
germination and reduced competition from other
species. They also cope better with ‘false’ breaks
than more favourable species.
Perennial species
Perennial grass species are likely to suffer
considerable reductions in plant numbers during
a drought. The longer the dry conditions last, the
more severe the effect.
Perennial ryegrass is the least tolerant of drought,
followed by cocksfoot, tall fescue and phalaris. A
dormant bud in the phalaris plant is its
mechanism for survival, supplying the plant with
water and nutrients throughout the dry period. By
allowing phalaris to set seed in spring, the
dormant bud can be fully developed, enhancing
the chances of survival.
Take care when grazing phalaris pastures soon
after the autumn break. Short phalaris pastures
can produce a toxin that causes phalaris staggers
and death. The risk can be minimised by allowing
plants to establish three leaves before grazing,
Chapter 3 / Pasture management during drought periods 23
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
and feeding the animals hay before they are
introduced to phalaris.
Paspalum is relatively drought tolerant and will
increase its dominance in under-irrigated
pastures.
Lucerne has a deep taproot and can survive
drought, provided it is given regular spells from
grazing to allow it to recover.
White clover survival is likely to be severely
affected, particularly in marginal areas (which
includes ‘irrigated’ areas where the watering has
been stopped).
Opportunity to improve pastures
Pasture productivity will not necessarily fall
drastically after a drought, even though some
species will have declined. A ‘wait and see policy’
for up to two years after the drought can allow
sufficient time to gauge the actual effects and
allow some species, for example perennial
ryegrass, to thicken up from seed produced in the
post-drought year.
For the best result, a good weed control program
should precede all pasture establishment work.
Broadleaf weeds, for example, are likely to be a
problem in newly germinated pastures unless they
are controlled.
Opportunity to control weeds
For any weed control program to be successful, it
must include a method for replacing the weeds
with more desirable species. Methods may include
chemical control followed by re-sowing and/or
grazing management programs. Grazing
management combined with chemical control can
be successful if the desirable species makes up
50% or more of the pasture composition.
The following spray programs may be considered.
Always read the product label and follow all
directions. Product labels contain helpful
information and critical precautions for the safe
and responsible use of these techniques.
• Spraygrazingforbroadleafweeds.Conducted
in autumn or early winter after the break. Spray
with a broadleaf herbicide such as MCPA, wait
two weeks and graze off the pasture.
• Wintercleaningforannualgrasses(particularly
silver grass). Conducted in late winter. Spray
with simazine, which prevents the annual
grasses from seeding.
• Spray-toppingforannualgrassessuchas
barley grass. Conducted in mid-spring (when
plants are in the ‘milky dough’ stage). Spray
with sub-lethal dose of glyphosate and graze
off the pasture.
• Pre-sowingknockdownspray.Spraywitha
lethal dose of glyphosate before sowing a new
pasture or fodder crop.
Need for fertiliser
There may be a larger-than-usual residual effect
from fertiliser applied at the start of the drought
as a consequence of reduced leaching of
nutrients because of the dry conditions and
reduced pasture growth.
Areas that have been used for intensive feeding
will have increased in fertility due to the nutrients
supplied by the feed and recycled through the
animal. Soil testing post-drought is the key to
ensuring the correct nutrient applications.
In circumstances of reduced stock numbers and
restricted finances, it may be necessary to defer
or reduce fertilisers for the year.
Nitrogen fertilisers can be used early after the
autumn break to boost autumn/winter feed
availability. Nitrogen fertiliser is best used on
improved plant species and may be wasted if
pasture composition has been seriously
compromised by the drought.
Fodder crops
In some circumstances, it is useful to grow a winter
fodder crop to boost feed supplies after the
drought. In most cases there is no need to do so,
particularly if there is a good early break and
stock numbers are down, or if water is available to
irrigate pasture.
Fodder crops can help control weeds prior to
re-sowing pasture in the following year and can
provide feed more rapidly than a newly sown
pasture.
Estimated pasture survival
It is important to assess what recovery might be
expected when rain falls so early action can be
taken.
A simple procedure is to water (with a watering
can) a square metre in several places within the
paddock and see what grows. In previous
droughts, the results of this procedure have shown
a close relationship to what subsequently
germinates.
If stock are in the paddock, it may be necessary to
use a fence to protect the watered areas.
Assessing the need for resowing a
perennial pasture
Resowing does not always mean a total
renovation of the pasture. If there is still a
reasonable amount of desirable species present,
but it needs to be thickened up, direct drilling into
the existing pasture is generally the best method.
Ryegrass seed, for example, is generally drilled in
at lower rates, such as 15 kg/ha for an oversow,
while a full resow generally has sowing rates of
20-25 kg/ha. Other seed types will have different
recommended rates.
24 Chapter 3 / Pasture management during drought periods
Agriculture Victoria
Assessing composition of the perennial pasture
can be completed using the stick method. Walk
across the paddock in a diagonal transect.
Randomly throw a pen or stick in front as you
walk. Note what the end of the stick is touching
and record. Complete this 50 times along the
transect. Record whether it touches a perennial
grass, annual grass, weed or bare ground. If 50
records are collected, simply multiply the number
in each category by two to get a percentage
composition for the paddock.
If desirable perennial grass species are above
70%, the pasture will still be productive. If the
desirable grass species are below 50%, reseeding
will increase yields, increase the feed value on
offer to stock and increase the response that
pasture will have to applications of nitrogen
should you choose to use it.
When assessing perennial pastures before the
break has arrived, a significant amount of bare
ground may be encountered. If this bare ground is
30% or lower, this will not significantly affect
pasture production across the year. Clover will
germinate and fill some of the bare ground areas,
but weed control may be needed to control
capeweed growth early in the season (generally
about six weeks after the break).
If reseeding, it is a good idea to apply a small
amount of phosphorus-based fertiliser to ensure
new emerging pasture can readily access
phosphorus from the soil. Phosphorus is important
for healthy, strong root formation, giving the
pasture a kick start to life.
Rates of 10-20 kg/ha of phosphorus will be
adequate (114-227 kg super/ha). The phosphorus
can either be drilled in with the seed (best
response) or broadcast around the time of sowing.
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Chapter 4 / Monitoring stock condition 25
CHAPTER 4
Monitoring stock
condition
This chapter covers the tools for assessing,
managing and monitoring cattle condition.
Key Messages
• Assessingfatcoverisanimportantguidefor
feeding strategies and sale decisions.
• Targetfatscoresarecriticalformatchingfeed
rations.
The body fat reserves of beef cattle are important
at critical stages of the production cycle (growth,
reproduction and lactation) and need to be
considered when developing drought feeding
rations. By assessing the stock and the amount of
available pasture, you can calculate the rate of
supplementary feeding needed for animals to
reach desired production targets.
The weight of cattle varies with the breed, sex, age
and pregnancy status, so when feeding for
survival during a drought, fat score is used as the
standard. Fat scoring can be assessed manually
and visually.
The aim of fat scoring is to obtain a simple and
reliable estimate of the body fat reserves of live
cattle.
Two areas of the animal’s body are palpated to
assess fat cover (see Figure 4.1):
• theshortribs
• aroundthetailhead.
Fat is the only tissue laid down at these sites,
which makes them ideal for assessment. Other
sites on the body are harder to assess because of
the difficulty of determining the difference
between fat and muscle.
The short ribs
The degree of fat deposition can be gauged by
placing the fingers flat over the short ribs and
pressing the thumb into the end of the short ribs
(see Figure 4.2). A fat score is given according to
the ease with which the individual short ribs can
be felt with the thumb.
Figure 4.1: The two areas palpitated to assess
fat cover.
The tail head
The degree of fat cover around the tail head is
assessed using the fingers and thumb, and should
be done at the same time as assessing the short
ribs.
A score is given depending on the degree to which
palpable fat can be felt.
Figure 4.2: The degree of fat cover over the short
ribs is assessed using the fingers and thumb.
26 Chapter 4 / Monitoring stock condition
Agriculture Victoria
Fat score descriptions
Table 4.1: Fat score descriptions for manual
fat scoring.
0 Emaciated
1 The individual short ribs are sharp to the
touch; no tail head fat. The hip bones and
ribs are prominent. The individual short ribs
can easily be felt, but feel rounded, rather
than sharp.
2* There is some tissue cover around the tail
head. Individual ribs are no longer visually
obvious.
3* The short ribs can only be felt with firm
thumb pressure. Areas either side of tail
head have fat cover which can be easily felt.
4* The short ribs cannot be felt and fat cover
around the tail head is easily seen as slight
mounds, soft to touch. Folds of fat are
beginning to develop over ribs and thighs.
5 The bone structure of the animal is no
longer noticeable and the tail head is
almost completely buried in fatty tissue.
6 Bone structure is hard to distinguish. Tail
head buried in fat. All other sites show
obvious soft fat deposits.
* The score can be varied half a score depending on the
amount of tail head fat with half scores reported as low (L)
or high (H) within a fat score descriptor.
The scores in Table 4.1 can be varied half a score
depending upon the amount of tail head fat. The
half scores are reported as low (L) or high (H)
within a fat score descriptor. If manual assessment
of the short rib area feels like a fat score 2, but an
assessment of the fat cover around the tail head
fits into the category description of a fat score 3,
the score given to the animal would be 2H.
If a manual assessment of the short rib area feels
like a fact score 3, but an assessment of the fat
cover around the tail head fits into the category
description of a fat score 2, the score given to the
animal would be a 3L.
Visual assessment
Visual assessment is less accurate but will give a
good indication during a paddock inspection. The
two main factors associated with cattle condition
and finish are fat and muscle. These are assessed
visually at three main sites – the rear, brisket and
flank (Figure 4.3).
As cattle become fatter:
• theribsbecomelessvisible
• thetailheadsoftenswithroundsoffat
increasing behind the tail
• muscleseamsonthehindquartersbecome
less evident
• brisket,ank,codandtwistallllout,givinga
squarer appearance.
There is no muscle in the tail head, flank, brisket
and cod. If these areas are filled out, they will be
filled with fat, which makes them ideal sites to
assess fat cover.
The same description of fat scores is used for
manual and visual assessment.
Figure 4.3: Reference points for visual assessment.
Muscling
Indicators of muscling in order of importance are:
• thicknessandroundnessofthehindquarters
• widththroughthestie(lowerhindquarter)
• widthacrossthebackandtheloin
• stance–howwideaparttheanimalstands,i.e.
the width between the hind legs and width
between the forelegs.
Fat cattle look ‘blocky’ and square, well-muscled
cattle look rounded.
Observe cattle from behind to assess thickness
through the lower hindquarters (stifle area).
Heavily muscled stock are thickest here; they also
stand with their legs further apart than lightly
muscled stock.
Target fat scores
There will always be a range of fat scores within a
mob of cattle. If the range is wide, splitting mobs
according to fat score is common practice and a
good idea. This will enable you to specifically
match rations for each class of animal to achieve
target fat scores.
Chapter 4 / Monitoring stock condition 27
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Table 4.2: Minimum and desired fat scores for
different classes of stock.
Minimum fat
score
Fat score ideal
for production
Dry cows 2 3
Cows – point
of calving
3L (autumn)
2H (spring)
3H (autumn)
3L (spring)
Cows–joining 2H 3-3H
Cows –
mid lactation
2H 3
Weaners 2 2-3
Bullsatjoining 3 3H
Managing cattle condition
Adult cattle gain and lose condition across the
year, depending on the feed available for
consumption compared to their needs. Adult
cattle that are in forward condition (fat score
above 3½) present an opportunity to utilise some
of the condition they are carrying to offset
supplementary feed costs.
Important notes to consider before reading
further:
• Managingcattleconditionrequiresahigh
degree of management, more frequent
supervision of the stock and protection from
the elements to ensure their welfare is not
compromised.
• Pregnantcowsmustbefedtoallowthemto
calve without complications.
• Earlyweaningshouldbeconsideredsothe
cows can be treated as dry adults that will have
considerably lower nutritional requirements
than lactating cows; calves will need a high-
protein, good-quality feed.
• Cattlelessthan12monthsofageshouldnotbe
allowed to lose weight – young growing stock
should be managed to ensure they are
maintaining or gaining weight.
The rate of weight loss should be controlled to
ensure cows do not lose more than 0.5 kg/day
– failure to control the rate of loss will cause the
cattle to be prone to starvation ketosis. Starvation
ketosis is a metabolic disorder that occurs in
cattle when energy demand exceeds energy
intake and results in a negative energy balance.
Select a number of poorer animals in the mob to
monitor regularly and then assess their progress
towards the desired fat score every week to gauge
the direction of the mob. If the animals’ progress is
too quick or too slow, you can adjust the ration to
compensate.
If the negative energy balance is too large, body
fat (as an energy source) may be mobilised faster
than the liver can metabolise it, resulting in a
product called ketone building up in the animal’s
system. Cattle suffering ketosis will lose weight
and have a reduced appetite. This depressed
appetite will result in further weight loss and, left
untreated, death. A 500 kg dry cow requires
55 MJ ME/day to maintain her bodyweight (see
Chapter 6 for information on stock requirements).
If the feed she was consuming had an energy of
9 MJ ME/kgDM, the cow would need (55 ÷ 9)
6.1 kgDM to maintain her current weight.
When cattle lose weight, for each kilogram they
lose, 28 MJ ME is released back to the animal.
When losing 0.5 kgLW/day, 14 MJ ME is released
back to the animal.
If you allowed her to lose 0.5 kgLW/day, instead of
requiring the 55 MJ ME/day for maintenance she
would only require (55-14) 41 MJ ME/day, equating
to 4.5 kgDM of the above feed.
One fat score is the equivalent of 70 kg liveweight.
At a rate of 0.5 kgLW loss per day, it would take
140 days for a cow to lose one fat score – drop
from a fat score 3H down to 2H. Dry beef cows
should not be allowed to fall below a fat score 2.
The fat score that cows calve down in has a
significant impact on their subsequent fertility.
The better the fat score they are in at calving, the
quicker they will return to oestrus, with a better
chance of getting in calf within the joining period.
Feed quality and quantity post-calving will also
have an impact.
Impact of fat score if cows are on good feed
post-calving:
• Ifacowisinfat score 3 at calving and is on
good feed post-calving it will take her about
30 days to first heat.
• Ifacowisinfat score 2 at calving and is on
good feed post-calving it will take her about
40 days to first heat (extra 10 days due to lower
fat score).
Impact of fat score if cows are on poor feed
post-calving:
• Ifacowisinfat score 3 at calving but is on
poor feed post-calving it will take her about
65 days to first heat (an extra 35 days due to
poor feed levels).
• Ifacowisinfat score 2 at calving and on poor
feed post-calving it will take her about 90 days
to first heat (an extra 60 days due to the
combination of poor condition and poor feed).
This could cause a substantial shift in your calving
pattern and result in a high empty rate in your cows.
CHAPTER 5
Choosing feeds
Agriculture Victoria
28 Chapter 5 / Choosing feeds
This chapter discusses the use and interpretation
of feed analyses in costing and balancing rations.
Key Messages
• Afeedanalysisistheonlyaccuratewayto
determine the value of the feed being offered
to your cattle.
• Feedanalysissamplesshouldbetakenand
senttoarriveatthelaboratoryasquicklyas
possible (e.g. avoid them being held in transit
over a weekend).
• Keygurestoknowareenergy,protein,bre
and dry matter of the feed.
• Ifpurchasingfeeds,comparethefeedcosts
based on the component you are buying the
feed for – energy, protein or fibre.
Understanding the components
of a feed
It is important to provide stock with a ration that
will enable them to achieve a desired level of
performance. When developing a feed budget, the
main feed components to know the value of are
energy, protein, fibre and dry matter. Other
components that are tested and reported in a
feed analysis, such as minerals and vitamins,
should also be taken into consideration.
It is difficult to judge feed quality visually. To
ensure cattle are properly fed, it is important to
get an objective measure of the feed components.
Energy
The metabolisable energy (ME) values of different
feeds are important for two main reasons:
• Theabilityoftheanimaltomaintaintheirweight
and production level (growth, reproduction and
lactation) is highly dependent on meeting
specific energy requirements. It is only possible
to calculate the amount of feed required to
meet production targets when you know the
energy value of the feeds that make up a ration.
• Thedecisiontobuyafeedshouldbebasedon
the cost per unit of energy rather than the cost
per tonne. See later in this chapter for details
on costing feeds on an energy basis.
One problem with feeding based on energy values
alone is getting the stock to physically eat enough.
Feeds high in fibre (such as mature pasture hay,
cereal hay and straw) cannot be eaten in large
enough quantities to provide the required energy
because they are digested slowly and stock
physically can’t fit enough in. This shortfall in
energy requirements results in the animal using
body fat to meet its needs. To avoid this, do not
use low energy feeds as a sole ration. Mix high-
fibre feeds with higher-energy feeds, such as
pasture, silage, good quality hay or grain, to meet
overall requirements. The higher the energy
requirement, the smaller the amount of low-
quality feed that can be used in the diet.
A feed analysis report will report back on
metabolisable energy (ME), expressed as
megajoules per kilogram dry matter (MJ/kgDM),
sometimes also written as MJ ME/kgDM.
ME is the amount of energy in the feed that is
available to cattle for use. It involves the
measurement of energy excreted in faeces, urine
and exhaled as methane. This requires specialised
equipment so in Australia it is calculated based on
the digestibility of a feed.
As an example of the importance of knowing the
variability in feed quality, the ME of pasture hay
can vary from 6.5 MJ ME/kgDM for very poor,
mature grass hay to 9.5 MJ ME/kgDM for top-
quality clover-dominant hay. Grains can range
from 9 to 13 MJ ME/kgDM.
Protein
Protein contains nitrogen, which is used to
estimate the protein content of feeds. It is typically
measured as crude protein and expressed as a
percentage of dry matter. It is called crude protein
because it measures both the true protein (amino
acids) and a portion of the nitrogen in feed that is
non-protein nitrogen (nitrates, ammonia and
urea).
The protein requirements of cattle vary according
to the weight and type of animal, as well as the
level of production (growth, reproduction and
lactation). Crude protein values give a good
indication of whether a particular foodstuff will
satisfy the protein needs of an animal.
Chapter 5 / Choosing feeds 29
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Green pasture is typically high in protein (leafy
pasture is 25-30% crude protein). Short green
pasture can go a long way in lifting the level of
protein in the diet. When no green pasture is
available, protein intake may fall below
requirements. Failing to meet protein requirements
will result in the energy in the diet not being
completely used and may even result in stock
using the breakdown of muscle to overcome the
shortfall of protein.
Growing stock have high demands for protein.
Steers and heifers weighing between 180 kg and
400 kg require 13% crude protein in their diet to
grow 1 kg/day. Early-weaned calves have even
higher requirements of 16% protein.
Some supplements, such as processed grain and
pellets, are medium to high in protein and will be
useful if they are cost effective and practical.
Supplements that are likely to be low in protein
include cereal hays, straws, low-quality pasture
hays and some cereal grains.
Crude protein values can range from 6% to 19% in
hay. Silage can show similar variation, and in the case
of cereal grains, protein can vary from 5% to 16%.
Lupins are very high in protein and are often
added to a cereal grain to increase the protein
level of the diet.
Forms of non-protein nitrogen such as urea can
be used to increase the rate of digestion of high-
fibre feeds such as hay and straw, but caution is
needed as urea can be toxic if consumed in high
quantities. In general terms, at least two-thirds of
an animal’s total protein intake should be
provided as true (natural) protein. That is, not
more than one-third of the protein should be
represented by non-protein nitrogen (NPN).
These nitrogen additives should not be included
in levels above 2% of the diet.
Fibre
Cattle need a certain amount of fibre to ensure
the rumen functions properly. Generally, cattle
grazing pasture will get enough fibre in their diet.
Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), as reported in a
feed analysis, is a measure of the total fibre (the
digestible and indigestible parts) and indicates
how bulky the feed is. It is reported as a
percentage of dry matter.
A high NDF will result in a lower intake. Conversely,
lower NDF values lead to higher intakes. The
minimum level of fibre required in the diet is
30% NDF for all classes of cattle.
Too little fibre can result in acidosis, as the feed is
digested too quickly and the rumen isn’t able to
function properly. Low-fibre, high-starch diets
(such as grains) cause the rumen to become
acidic. These feeds include cereal grains, some
by-products and certain vegetables, such as
potatoes. These feeds need to be introduced into
the diet slowly. See Chapter 7 for more detail on
how to introduce cattle to grain.
If you are using low-fibre supplements, ensure
there is adequate fibre elsewhere in the diet. Hay,
straw, silage and pasture all have a lot of fibre and
can be used to keep fibre at the desired level. Oats
are the safest and highest fibre grain with 29% NDF,
compared with barley at 14% NDF and wheat at
around 11% NDF.
Too much fibre limits the amount an animal can
eat. For example, if cows with young calves are
grazing poor pasture and fed a supplement of
low-quality hay, their energy intake would be too
low. This would result in cow weight loss and poor
calf growth. In these instances, a low-fibre, high-
energy supplement (such as grain or pellets)
should be provided.
Dry matter
It is important to know the dry matter (DM)
content of the feed. All measurements of energy
and protein are made on a DM basis so feeds of
different moisture contents can be compared.
DM is the amount of feed left after all the water in
the sample has been removed by oven drying. It is
expressed as a percentage of the original sample.
Silage has a high moisture content and is around
45% DM. This means 1 tonne of silage has only
450 kg of dry matter and 550 kg of water. Grain
has a much lower moisture content and is about
90% DM. This means 1 tonne of grain has 900 kg
of dry matter and only 100 kg of water.
Knowing the DM percentage enables you to work
out how much to feed to provide to meet the
energy requirements of the stock.
Example: If silage has an energy level of
11 MJ ME/kg DM, how much silage do you
need to feed 50 MJ ME of energy?
Silage required:
50 MJ ME ÷ 11 MJ ME/kgDM = 4.5 kgDM
4.5 kgDM ÷ 0.45 (silage 45% dry matter)
= 10 kg as fed
Other components of a feed analysis
• Moistureistheamountofwaterinthefeedand
is measured as a percentage of the original
sample.
• Digestibilitycanbeseenonafeedanalysis
report as DDM or DMD (depending on the
company completing the analysis), and is
reported as a percentage of dry matter. It is the
percentage of the dry matter actually digested
by the animal. High-quality feeds will have a
30 Chapter 5 / Choosing feeds
Agriculture Victoria
figure over 65%. Feeds below 55% are of poor
quality and even if cattle are given unlimited
access, they will be unlikely to be able to
maintain their liveweight.
• Digestibilityoforganicmatter(DOMD)isa
calculated figure and is expressed as a
percentage of dry matter. It is a measure of the
digestibility of the organic component of the
feed and takes into account the inorganic
component (referred to as ash) such as sand,
dirt and clay that may be present in the
sample.
• AcidDetergentFibre(ADF)isreportedasa
percentage of dry matter. It estimates the
proportion of feed that is indigestible to stock
(mainly cellulose and lignin). Feeds with a low
ADF are high in energy; those with a high ADF
are low in energy.
• Ashisreportedasapercentageofdrymatter
and is the inorganic portion that is not utilised
by the stock. It is any sand, dirt and clay in the
sample.
• Fatisexpressedasapercentageofdrymatter
and is a measure of the lipid content of the
feed. If the diet of cattle is too high in fat
correct rumen function can be impaired.
• Watersolublecarbohydrate(WSC)isreported
as a percentage of dry matter and is a
measure of the total naturally occurring sugars
in the feed. The sugars are a source of energy
for the rumen bacteria and therefore the cattle.
Note: Not all companies test and report on the
same components. Ensure these key components
are tested: metabolisable energy, protein, neutral
detergent fibre and dry matter.
How to sample for a feed
analysis
The first step is to select the feed analysis
company you wish to use. The company websites
have details about how to sample, costs involved,
how to access sampling kits and payment
methods.
The following companies offer feed analysis:
• FEEDTEST®,www.feedtest.com.au/, PO Box 728,
Werribee Victoria 3030 Ph: 1300 655 474
Email: feed.test@agrifood.com.au
• LivestockLogic,livestocklogic.com.au/feed-
logic/, 60 Portland Rd, Hamilton Victoria 3300,
Ph: 03 5572 1419, Email: feed@livestocklogic.
com.au
• FeedCentral,www.feedcentral.com.au/test-
fodder/, 38 New Dookie Road, Shepparton
Victoria 3630, Ph. 03 5823 0000,
Email: info@feedcentral.com.au
Sampling and sample submission
The analysis is only as good as the sample taken,
which must adequately represent the feed being
tested. Hay and silage in particular are quite
variable, so take great care when sampling them.
Sampling hay and bale silage
Use a coring device, made from 32 mm steel
tubing about 450 mm long, and attached to an
electric drill or hand brace. The cutting edge
should be slightly scalloped and must be kept
sharp. Each sample should consist of cores taken
at random from 15-20 bales, with each core taken
from the ‘butt’ end of a bale.
Take separate samples to represent different
paddocks, cutting times, clover content, weather
damage, etc.
Hay and silage can be sampled by hand as
described in the silage section. This method,
however, is much less accurate.
Sampling pit silage
Sample by hand from 10-20 spots across a freshly
cut face of the stack, mix thoroughly and sub-
sample, to yield a total amount not exceeding 500 g.
Alternatively, use a hay corer.
Seal the sample in a strong airtight plastic bag.
Send the sample immediately. If a delay is
unavoidable, refrigerate the sample until it is sent,
especially in hot weather.
Sampling pasture
Walk through the paddock and cut a sample to
residual grazing height (height cattle normally
graze down to) from near the toe of your right
boot, every 10 steps. Ensure that the same sized
area is cut every time (about 30 square
centimetres) and that you sample from at least 15
locations in the paddock. Combine these samples
into one and thoroughly mix to obtain an amount
not exceeding 500 g. Be careful not to
contaminate the sample with soil or faeces. Seal
the sample in a strong airtight plastic bag. Send
the sample immediately. If a delay is unavoidable,
refrigerate the sample until it is sent, especially in
hot weather.
Sampling grains and pellets
Select several sub-samples from different areas.
Thoroughly mix them and send 300-400 g of this
mix for testing.
Use one bag for each sample. Fill out the analysis
company’s sample information sheet with details
of the feed and its intended use.
Samples should be posted as soon as possible
after collection.
Chapter 5 / Choosing feeds 31
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Table 5.1: Energy and protein compositions of common livestock feeds (pasture, hay, silage, straw).
Feed Approx dry
matter (DM) %
Energy
MJ ME/kg DM
Crude protein %
dry matter
Average Range Average Range
GRAZED PASTURES
Grass-dominant pasture 3-14 1-37
Young,immature 23 11 25
Mature 40 7 5
Clover-dominant pasture 4-12 1-35
Immature 15 11 30
Mature 30 4 7
Lucerne 4-13 3-41
Young,immature 17 11 30
Full bloom 24 8 15
GRAZED CEREAL CROPS
Barley/oats 7-13 3-33
Early vegetative 19 9 20
Post-bloom 21 10 8
HAY
Pasture hay, grass dominant 5-11 1-30
Flowering 80 10 9
Two weeks after flowering 85 9 8
Pasture hay, sub clover dominant
Flowering
80 9 7-11 13 8-26
Lucerne hay 5-11 6-28
Pre-flowering 85 9 5-12 15
Flowering 90 8 14
Oaten/wheaten hay 5-11 1-16
Flowering 85 9 7
Milk stage 87 8 5
Ripe seed 90 8 3
Canola hay 70 11 8-13 17 4-27
SILAGES
Grass dominant 45 10 7-11 14 4-23
Legume dominant 44 10 8-12 15 8-28
Lucerne 51 10 7-11 19 11-27
Cereal 46 9 6-11 11 4-21
Canola 60 9 6-10 17 9-26
CEREAL STRAWS
Barley, oaten, wheaten 90 5 4-7 2 1-4
32 Chapter 5 / Choosing feeds
Agriculture Victoria
Table 5.2: Energy and protein compositions of common grains (whole and processed).
IMPORTANT
– Note the difference in
approximate dry matter
(DM) % (ME) Metabolisable
energy (MJ/kg DM)
Approximate
dry matter
(DM) %
Energy
MJ ME/kg DM
Crude protein %
dry matter
When fed
whole to
cattle
When fed rolled or
coarsely milled to
cattle
Average Average Range Average Range
Wheat 90 9 13 12-15 12 8-23
Barley 90 8.4 13 11-13 11 6-17
Triticale 90 10.4 13 12-15 12 9-15
Oats 90 10 11 9-13 9 6-12
Lupins 90 11 13 12-14 30 26-40
Peas 90 11 13 10-13 23 18-29
Maize 90 13 13.5 12-14 9 8-13
Safflower seeds 90 13 7-12 25 20-37
Rice (dehulled) 90 12 11-14 7 7-9
Rye 90 14 11
Sorghum 90 10 13 11
Pellets 90 N/A 12 10-14 12 11-16
WARNING: As can be seen from the table, feeds vary considerably in nutritional value depending on growing conditions, stage of
harvesting and storage conditions. The only way to be sure of the nutritional value of a particular batch of feed is to have it tested
for energy, protein, fibre and dry matter.
Costing fodders on energy value
Fodders such as grain and hay are usually bought
and sold on a price per tonne (or some other unit
of weight or size). Feeds contain moisture and
need to be converted to dry matter figures before
they can be compared.
The most important basis for comparison of
feedstuffs is their energy content. Tables 5.1, 5.2, 11.1
and 11.2 list the energy and protein values of a range
of foodstuffs. It is important to note that those
values are all expressed on a dry matter (DM) basis.
The following section aims to help calculate which
feed is the best value for money. To make
comparisons you must first look at the energy and
dry matter content of the feedstuff.
Example: Which feed is the best value on an
energy basis?
Cost/
tonne
Dry
Matter %
Energy
MJ ME/kgDM
Feed A $195 85% 10
Feed B $230 90% 13
How to calculate the cost of feed on an
energy basis
Chapter 5 / Choosing feeds 33
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Feed A
Step 1 – Calculate the price of the feed on a dry
matter basis at 85% dry matter
$/
tonne
as fed
x 10 ÷ % DM = Cents/
kgDM
195 x 10 ÷ 85 = 23
Step 2 – Calculate the cost per MJ of energy
Cents/
kgDM
÷ MJ ME/
kgDM
= Cents/
MJ ME
25.6 ÷ 13 = 1.97
Step 2 – Calculate the cost per MJ of energy
Cents/
kgDM
÷ MJ ME/
kgDM
= Cents/
MJ ME
23 ÷ 10 = 2.3
Feed B
Step 1 – Calculate the price of the feed on a dry
matter basis at 85% dry matter
$/
tonne
as fed
x 10 ÷ % DM = Cents/
kgDM
230 x 10 ÷ 90 = 25.6
Therefore, Feed B is better value per unit of energy,
costing 1.97¢/MJ ME, compared to 2.3¢/MJ ME for
Feed A.
Table 5.3: Quick lookup table for costing fodder based on energy value – costs are calculated on a
cents/megajoulebasis.
$/tonne
Fodder MJ
ME/
kg
DM
125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500
Grain/
pellets
(assuming
90% DM)
14.0 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
12.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.6
10.0 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.6
8.0 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.8 4.2 4.5 4.9 5.2 5.6 5.9 6.3 6.6 6.9
Hay
(assuming
85% DM)
10.0 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.6 5.9
8.0 1.8 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.1 5.5 5.9 6.3 6.6 7.0 7.4
6.0 2.5 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.4 4.9 5.4 5.9 6.4 6.9 7.4 7.8 8.3 8.8 9.3 9.8
Silage
(assuming
40% DM)
14.0 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.6 4.0 4.5 4.9 5.4 5.8 6.3 6.7 7.1 7.6 8.0 8.5 8.9
12.0 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.2 5.7 6.3 6.8 7.3 7.8 8.3 8.9 9.4 9.9 10.4
10.0 3.1 3.8 4.4 5.0 5.6 6.3 6.9 7.5 8.1 8.8 9.4 10.0 10.6 11.3 11.9 12.5
8.0 3.9 4.7 5.5 6.3 7.0 7.8 8.6 9.4 10.2 10.9 11.7 12.5 13.3 14.1 14.8 15.6
Straw
(assuming
90% DM)
6.0 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.6 5.1 5.6 6.0 6.5 6.9 7.4 7.9 8.3 8.8 9.3
4.0 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.6 6.3 6.9 7.6 8.3 9.0 9.7 10.4 11.1 11.8 12.5 13.2 13.9
2.0 6.9 8.3 9.7 11.1 12.5 13.9 15.3 16.7 18.1 19.4 20.8 22.2 23.6 25.0 26.4 27.8
34 Chapter 5 / Choosing feeds
Agriculture Victoria
Other factors to consider when
buying fodder
The cost of feeding cattle is not just the cost to
buy feed. There are also costs associated with
labour, freight, extra storage and handling, and
the likely amount of wastage.
Grain processing
Cattle only derive the full value from grains such
as wheat, triticale and barley if the grain is rolled
or coarsely milled (Table 5.2). Processing
equipment can be expensive, but may be worth
the investment if used on a large enough scale.
Feed companies sell rolled or crushed grain, but at
a higher price than whole grain. Remember to
calculate the cost (in ¢/MJ ME) for both the whole
and the crushed grain.
Storage, handling, feeding out
Ask the feed company about storage requirements
for the feed you are looking at buying. Consider
what equipment and infrastructure you will need
to be able to store and feed out purchased feed. If
you are using self-feeders, ask how well the feed
will flow through them.
Availability
The microbes in the rumen, which provide the
cattle’s main digestive capacity, take up to two
weeks to adjust to a new feed source and fully
utilise that feed. As a result, feeding cattle for less
than two weeks is uneconomic. There is little use
starting cattle on a feed that you are not able to
source for longer than a two-week period.
Switching cattle too quickly from one feed source
to another every couple of weeks carries with it a
high risk of digestive upsets and the bugs in the
rumen try to constantly adapt to differing feed
sources.
Cost of freight
The bulkiness and handling difficulties of some
feedstuffs (for example, feeds high in moisture
such as carrot pulp) mean higher freight costs
compared to concentrated feeds such as grains.
Noxious weeds
Take care to buy fodder that is free from noxious
weeds. Weeds such as Paterson’s curse, Bathurst
burr, variegated thistle, etc, can be a problem for
years after a drought has ended if they are
accidentally introduced onto a property. It is
important to inspect all samples for weed seeds,
however it is not always possible to detect a
potential problem or even to refuse delivered feed
on these grounds.
One way to minimise potential weed problems is
to restrict feeding out suspect fodder to a limited
number of paddocks. Stock can be boxed
together in large mobs on stable soils. This can
have the added advantage of preserving some
vegetation on de-stocked areas of the farm,
reducing the likelihood of severe erosion.
Tips for buying hay
Hay can be a good management option in some
situations, but it can be expensive and often hard
to find a quality supply.
An average dry cow requires 8.5 kg DM/day of hay
(depending on the quality of the hay) to maintain
herself (which is almost half a small bale). If high
rates of grain are fed, the diet will need to contain
good-quality hay to maintain adequate fibre levels.
If you are buying hay from other districts, transport
costs will be higher. Aim to buy only high quality
hay to avoid paying transport on low-value feed.
Buying locally has the advantage of low transport
costs and knowing the quality of the hay.
When buying, find out the feed value, how long it has
been stored, the amount of legume or clover, and
whether there are any weeds present. Ask the vendor
if any has been sold into your district so that you
can inspect hay from the same batch before buying.
It is also a good idea to ask about the pasture
species, the type of shed where the hay is stored
and the stage of maturity the hay was baled. If the
vendor has good knowledge of their hay they are
more likely to be a genuine seller rather than a
dealer in hay.
If buying lucerne, be aware that first cut lucerne
will have a lower nutritive value and more annual
weed seeds. If you do buy lucerne, make sure it
has a fine stalk. It is also important to have a
method of feeding that will avoid the loss of leaf.
The best method is to feed lucerne in a feeder, or
to mill the hay and feed in a feed trough.
Dampening the lucerne hay the day before
feeding will help to hold the leaf on the stem and
reduce losses.
When buying hay try to purchase by weight so you
can calculate a price per tonne delivered to your
property. It is a good practice to request a feed
analysis for the hay, which will give an accurate
measure of the metabolisable energy (MJ ME/kgDM),
crude protein and fibre content. This will enable
you to price your hay on a ¢/MJ ME basis and
compare the value of the various feeds on offer.
Chapter 5 / Choosing feeds 35
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Drought feeding of stock – the
risk of chemical residues
Many producers are tempted to try a variety of
alternate feedstuffs. Chapter 11 presents
information on the feed value of a range of
unusual feedstuffs. Alternative feedstuffs can
range from waste plant products and vegetable
matter from manufacturing processes – such as
potatoes, citrus pulp, cabbage leaves and carrots
– to manufacturing by-products – such as cotton
waste and sawdust.
Apart from their generally poor nutritional value,
these ‘unusual’ feedstuffs could also be
contaminated with high levels of chemical residue.
Potentially all supplementary feeds may contain
chemical contaminants, but ‘unusual’ feedstuffs,
not normally used for feeding livestock, pose a
much greater risk.
Agricultural chemicals used on fruit and vegetable
crops are typically designed to be eliminated from
the edible parts of the plant at harvesting. Some
residues, however, may still be present in the
waste plant material after processing and
problems can occur when this is fed to stock.
These agricultural chemicals are not designed to
be ingested by livestock, and little is known about
either their effect on livestock or the persistence
of chemical residues in animal tissues.
There is a very real possibility that the meat from
animals that are fed products containing chemical
contaminants will itself become contaminated
with these chemicals. Producers should be aware
of the Export Slaughter Interval (ESI) and the
Withholding Period (WHP).
The ESI is the time that should elapse between
administration of an agricultural or veterinary
chemical to animals and their slaughter for export.
The WHP is the minimum period that must lapse
between last administration or application of an
agricultural or veterinary chemical, including
treated feed and the slaughter of the animal for
human consumption. WHPs are mandatory for
domestic slaughter and on the label of every
registered product.
Chemical-withholding periods must be observed
for any chemical used in a crop. In some instances
chemical use earlier on in the season may
preclude the option of cutting the crop for hay. It is
essential that withholding periods be observed.
The best policy is not to feed unusual feedstuffs to
stock without first establishing that the material is
suitable.
Producers should ask the supplier of unusual
feedstuffs to certify that the material they are
supplying is suitable for the purpose for which it
will be used.
Where possible, producers should obtain a
commodities vendor declaration on any feedstuffs
they buy.
CHAPTER 6
Feeding cattle
Agriculture Victoria
36 Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle
This chapter discusses the energy and protein
needs of different classes of cattle and examples
of feed budgets to assist in determining feed
requirements.
Key Messages
• Afeedbudgetwillhelpdeterminetheamount
ofsupplementaryfeedrequired.
• Feedbudgetsarebestcompletedusingthe
energyrequirementsofstockandtheenergy
content of feeds, then converted back to
kilograms of dry matter consumed.
• Completingfeedbudgetsusingkilogramsofdry
matter estimates for cattle intakes can lead to
large errors due to highly variable energy
contents of feed, particularly grasses – 1 kgDM
grass in spring could have an energy value of
11 MJ ME/kgDM, whereas in summer 1 kgDM
grass could have a value of 6 MJ ME/kgDM.
• Eveniftheenergyofthedietisadequate,the
desired level of production (maintenance,
growth, etc) will not be achieved if there is not
enough protein.
• Cattlehaveanupperlimittoappetitethatis
influenced by the fibre level of the feed being
offered.
Nutritional requirements of
beef cattle
Beef cattle production can be affected by a whole
range of dietary mineral and vitamin deficiencies
(or excesses), but by far the most important
nutritional limitations are energy and/or protein.
It is important to know the approximate weight of
each animal and the level of production (e.g. growth
rate or stage of reproduction) that is expected for,
say, a 300 kg steer to grow at 0.5 kg/day or a
mature, dry cow that is seven months pregnant.
Explanation of the terms used in the
following tables
Liveweight, growth rate
To precisely plan feeding management, you need
to have some idea of liveweights and expected
growth rates of cattle. This can only be achieved
by weighing cattle.
Maximum intake
Cattle have an upper limit to their appetite. This
can be defined either in terms of a percentage of
their liveweight or as a weight of feed. One of the
most common issues in a drought is that animals
are physically not able to consume enough
supplement to meet a required level of nutrition
each day. Intake is influenced by the fibre level of
the feed being consumed, the higher the fibre
levels in the feed, the less the animal is able to
consume. See Tables 6.1-6.4 for approximate
maximum intake for different rations.
Metabolisable energy (ME) requirement
The ME value of a foodstuff is the amount of
energy a ruminant animal (sheep or cattle) is able
to use, per kilogram that it consumes. The units of
ME are megajoules (MJ) per kilogram of dry
matter (DM) of the particular foodstuff.
The ME requirement of an animal can be
accurately estimated, as long as its weight and
level of production (for example growth rate or
stage of reproduction) are specified.
Minimum ME concentration of diet
The minimum ME concentration of the diet is
calculated from the relevant values for maximum
daily dry matter intake and metabolisable energy
requirement.
To achieve the stated level of production, it is
necessary to ensure that the cattle have access to
a diet that has an energy level at least as high as
the minimum value shown in the sixth column in
Tables 6.1-6.4.
As an example of how these values could be used,
a 300 kg steer requires a diet with a minimum of
10 MJ ME to grow at 1 kg/day. This is possible on
young, growing green pasture (energy value of
11 MJ ME), but not on mature, dry pasture (energy
value of 7 MJ ME). See Tables 5.1, 5.2 and 11.2 for the
value of different feeds.
Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle 37
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Crude protein percentage of dietary dry matter
Tables 6.1-6.4 show that the protein requirements
of cattle vary according to the weight and type of
animal, as well as the expected level of production.
Even when the ME concentration of the diet is
adequate, if the protein percentage is inadequate,
the desired level of production will not be achieved.
If protein is the limiting nutrient in a diet, cattle
may not be able to eat enough to satisfy their
maintenance requirements. In some situations,
non-protein nitrogen (NPN) supplements, such as
urea, can significantly stimulate appetite. See later
in the chapter for further information on urea.
When pasture dries off, there can be plenty of
dry-standing feed of low quality. Feeding animals
NPN stimulates rumen microbes and increases
feed intake, so cattle consume more dry feed than
they otherwise would.
Animals can be fed a NPN source such as urea in
the form of blocks, licks or urea fortified molasses.
However, adequate dry-standing feed or fodder
must be available or these supplements will
simply be an extremely expensive source of
energy.
Energy and protein requirements of various classes of cattle
Table 6.1: Steers and heifers (after weaning) (see Table 10.1 for early weaned, lighter calves).
Liveweight
(kg)
Growth rate
(kg/day)
Maximum daily dry
matter (DM) intake
Metabolisable
energy (ME)
requirement
(MJ ME/day)
Minimum ME
concentration
of diet
(MJ ME/kgDM)
Crude
protein % of
dietary dry
matter
% of
liveweight
(kg)
150
0
2.9 4.3
22 5.2* 8
0.5 37 8.7 12
1 48 11.2 13
200
0
2.8 5.5
26 4.8* 8
0.5 44 8.0 11
1 57 10.4 13
300
0
2.5 7.6
35 4.6* 8
0.5 56 7.4 10
1 73.5 9.7 13
400
0
2.4 9.4
45 4.8* 8
0.5 72 7.6 10
1 94.5 10 13
500
0
2.1 10.7
55 5.1* 7
0.5 82.5 7.7 10
1 110 10.2 12
* Cattle on these diets may not eat to full appetite because of the very poor quality (low ME values) of these particular diets.
38 Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle
Agriculture Victoria
Table 6.2: Cows dry, pregnant mature.*
Liveweight
(kg)
Growth rate
(kg/day)
Maximum daily dry
matter (DM) intake
Metabolisable
energy (ME)
requirement
(MJ ME/day)
Minimum ME
concentration
of diet
(MJ ME/kgDM)
Crude
protein % of
dietary dry
matter
% of
liveweight
(kg)
350 0 2.4 8.5 49-85 5.7-10 6
400 0 2.3 9.4 54-90 5.7-9.6 6
450 0 2.2 10.1 59-95 5.8-9.4 6
500 0 2.1 10.7 64-100 5.9-9.3 6
550 0 2.0 11.2 69-105 6.2-9.4 6
* Range of values for cows that are 6 months pregnant to point of calving, assuming a 40 kg calf birthweight. When determining
the energy requirement for your cows, if the cows are 6 months pregnant, use the lower figure in the column for MJ ME/kgDM.
If cows are at the point of calving, use the upper range for energy requirements.
Table 6.3: Cows with suckling calves 1-4 months old, assuming eventual calf weaning weight of 250 kg.
Liveweight
(kg)
Growth rate
(kg/day)
Maximum daily dry
matter (DM) intake
Metabolisable
energy (ME)
requirement
(MJ ME/day)
Minimum ME
concentration
of diet
(MJ ME/kgDM)
Crude
protein % of
dietary dry
matter
% of
liveweight
(kg)
350*
0
2.4 8.5
90-117 10.6 10
0.5 114-141 13.4 11
400*
0
2.3 9.4
95-122 10.1 10
0.5 122-149 12.9 11
450 0 2.2 10.1 100-127 9.9 10
500 0 2.1 10.7 105-132 9.8 10
550 0 2.0 11.2 110-137 9.8 10
* Young cows at these weights need to put on some weight after calving (for example, 0.5kg/day) because they have not yet
reached their adult weight and therefore need better feed than older cows. Note: When determining the cow/calf unit energy
requirements, use the lower figure in the energy column if the calf is 1 month old. Use the higher figure in the energy column if
the calf is 4 months old.
Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle 39
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Table 6.4: Bulls.
Liveweight
(kg)
Growth rate
(kg/day)
Maximum daily dry
matter (DM) intake
Metabolisable
energy (ME)
requirement
(MJ ME/day)
Minimum ME
concentration
of diet
(MJ ME/kgDM)
Crude
protein % of
dietary dry
matter
% of
liveweight
(kg)
400 1 2.4 9.4 94 10 13
500
0.5
2.1 10.7
88 8.2 11
1 115 10.7 12
600
0
2.0 11.7
65 5.5 10
0.5 97 8.3 11
1 130 11.1 12
800
0
1.8 14.4
85 5.9 10
0.5 127 8.8 10
See Appendix II for calculations and equations used to derive the figures in Tables 6.1-6.4.
Note: These tables are a guide only. With natural variation between cattle, responses to feed levels will
differ. It is important to monitor stock condition regularly and adjust the diet accordingly. If stock are
losing condition, increase the energy on offer. Check they can eat enough of the diet on offer to satisfy
their maintenance needs.
Table 6.5: Quantities for full hand feeding (kg/hd/day) for common classes of stock.
Growth
Rate
kg/day
Metabolisable
energy (ME)
requirement
MJ ME/day
Hay Grain:Hay
50:50
Grain:Hay
70:30
Hay:Grain
70:30
Grass
Silage
kg hay kg grain kg hay kg grain kg hay kg hay kg grain kg silage
Adult Dry Stock
(450 kg)
Nil 59 8.2 3.3 3.3 4.3 1.9 5 2.1 12.6
Pregnant cow
point of calving
(450 kg)
Nil 95 13.2* 5.3 5.3 6.7 3.1 7.9 3.5 20.3
Pregnant heifer
point of calving
(400 kg)
0.5 106 14.7* 5.9 5.9 7.6* 3.4* 8.8 3.9 22.7*
Lactating cow
(450 kg) plus calf
(4 months)
Nil 127 17.6*
#
7.1 7.1 9.1* 4* 10.6 4.6 27.2*
#
Lactating heifer
(400 kg) plus calf
(4 months)
0.5 149 20.5* 8.3 8.3 10.7* 4.6* 12.3 5.5 31.8*
#
Weaner
steer/heifer
(250 kg)
0 30 4.2 1.7 1.7 2.2 0.9 2.5 1.1 6.5
0.5 51 7.1
#
2.8 2.8 3.7 1.6 4.3 1.9 10.9
#
1 66 9.2*
#
3.7
#
3.7
#
4.4
#
1.8
#
5.6*
#
2.4*
#
14.2
#
Yearling
steer/heifer
(350 kg)
0 40 5.5 2.2 2.2 2.9 1.2 3.4 1.4 8.6
0.5 64 8.9
#
3.5 3.5 4.6 2 5.5 2.3 13.7
#
1 84 11.7*
#
4.7
#
4.7
#
6.1
#
2.6
#
7.1*
#
3*
#
18
#
The figures in this table are ‘as fed’ rather than on a dry matter basis.
Assumptions: Grain 12 MJ ME/kgDM, 90% DM; Hay 8.5 MJ ME/kgDM, 85% DM; Grass silage 10.4 MJ ME/kgDM, 45% DM. Heifers are
assumed to be growing at 0.5 kg/day giving birth to a 30 kg calf
#
These rations will not meet the protein requirements to achieve the stated level of performance.
* Stock may not be able to physically consume this much feed in a day.
40 Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle
Agriculture Victoria
Using the figures – feed
budgeting
Feed budgets help manage risk and allow more
accurate planning of the feed resources. They
allow for a better estimation of the supplementary
feed required and allow a comparison of feed
costs. They are an essential tool for helping make
good decisions in regards to feeding cattle.
The following pages contain two worked examples
of feed budgets. There are blank versions in the
appendix section of this book. The first, a tactical
feed budget, is best used if there is still some
pasture available for the cattle to consume. The
second, Pearson’s Square, is good for calculating
a balanced diet where no pasture is available.
Tactical feed budget for use when some
pasture is available
The tactical feed budget can also be used
throughout the season to help respond to
changes in pasture growth conditions and
changes in feed demand.
The information needed to complete the tactical
feed budget and where you can source it is:
• Numberandclassofcattle.
• Cattleliveweight–usetheaverageliveweight
the animals will be during the budget period.
For mature cows, you wouldn’t expect a change
in weight over the budget period, but for young
stock, you may. If you expected them to grow
from 300 kg to 350 kg over the budget period,
use the liveweight of 325 kg.
• CurrentFeedOnOffer(FOO)–measuredin
kilograms of dry matter per hectare (kg DM/ha).
For information on assessing FOO, see Chapter 3.
• Estimateofthequalityofthepasturetheyhave
access to – young, green pasture in the
growing season usually has an energy value of
10 MJ ME/kgDM. During late spring with seed
heads visible, the pasture may have an energy
value of 9 MJ ME/kgDM. During early summer,
as the pasture starts to dry off, the pasture may
have an energy value of 8 MJ ME/kgDM and in
mid-late summer if pastures are completely
dry, the energy value could be as low as
6 MJ ME/kgDM.
• Grazingareaintherotation–expressedin
hectares.
• Timeframeofthebudget,indays–itcanbe
as short as one month or as long as four
months.
• Requiredperformanceofthecattle–isitjust
maintenance (0 kg/day growth) or are you
looking at achieving a growth rate in young
stock of 0.5 or 1 kg/day?
• Energyrequirementofthestockyouare
including in the budget based on their
liveweight and their expected performance.
Energy requirements can be found on the
previous pages in Tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4.
• Minimumpasturecover–expressedas
kg DM/ha. This is the feed level you don’t want
the cattle to graze below. Generally in drought
conditions, 1,000 kg DM/ha is recommended for
cattle. During dry, but not drought periods,
1,200 kg DM/ha is recommended to help protect
the grass plants from damage. In normal
pasture growth situations, it is recommended
that cattle don’t graze below 1,400 kg DM/ha
for young growing stock to ensure good animal
growth rates.
• Estimatedgrowthratesofpastureforthe
budget period, expressed as kg DM/ha/day – it
is better to underestimate pasture growth rates
than over estimate. Annual pastures will
generally have a zero growth rate over summer.
Perennial pastures are influenced by summer
rainfall events, so their growth rates may be
0-10 kg DM/ha.
The website www.pasturesfromspace.csiro.au
allows a more accurate prediction of growth
rates for your own region:
- on the website, click on the icon for “Eastern
Australia PGR data”
- click Accept for the disclaimer of liability
- either register as a first time user or click
icon for PGR data returning user
- click on Chart Shire PGRs for 20xx (select
most current year)
- find your shire in the list – you can click on
the state at the top to narrow the search
- if you click on the name of the shire, it will
graph all growth rates for all the years it has
data for, which is great for seeing the
variability across the years
- if you click in the small box to the left of the
shire name, and click Graph Shires, it will
return a bar graph for the year you selected,
with weekly averaged growth rates for that
shire; if you hover your mouse over an
individual bar in the graph, it will display the
actual reading.
A blank copy of the tactical feed budget can be
found in Appendix III.
Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle 41
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Minimum pasture cover (kg DM/ha) (n) Provision from current pasture (kgDM) (o)
o = (b – n) x d
at 1,200 residual or 1,000 residual @1,200 = (1,400 – 1,200) x 200 = 40,000 or
@1,000 = (1,400 – 1,000) x 200 = 80,000
Provision from current pasture (kgDM) (o) @1,200 = 40,000
@1,000 = 80,000
Provision from future growth (kgDM) (m) 121,000
Total pasture intake (kgDM) (i) 253,800
FEED BALANCE (kgDM) = (o + m)– i @1,200 (40,000 + 121,000) – 253,800 = – 92,800 (deficit)
(92.8 tDM)^
@1,000 (80,000 + 121,000) – 253,800 = – 52,800 (deficit)
(52.8 tDM)^
Step 4 – Options for achieving feed balance
* A quick check using Table 6.2 shows the cow/calf unit requirement of 16.5 kgDM pasture is in excess of maximum daily dry
matter intake. Without supplementation, the cow will lose weight and may stop producing milk. The cow/calf units will need to be
supplemented with a feed that has a higher energy value than the pasture, that is a supplementary feed with an energy value
greater than 8 MJ ME/kgDM
^ The deficit is the tonnage of feed short at the equivalent energy value of the pasture (8 MJ ME/kgDM). If purchasing
supplementary feed of a higher energy value, this needs to be taken into consideration. See following form to convert pasture
deficit into supplementary feed requirement.
TACTICALFEEDBUDGET
Scenario: 200 (300 kg liveweight start weight) steers, want to grow at 0.5 kg/day. 80 cow/calf
units (cow 500 kg liveweight, calves start age 3 months) on 200 ha , and what impact
would grazing to 1,000 kg DM/ha have compared to grazing to 1,200 kg DM/ha
Step 1 – Where are we now?
No. of animals (a) Liveweight (kg) Current FOO
(kg DM/ha) (b)
Pasture quality
(MJ ME/kgDM) (c)
Grazing Area (ha)
(d)
200 steers
80 cow/calves
325
500
1,400 8 200
Step 2 – Where do we want to get to?
Time frame (days) (e) Required liveweight gain (kg/day) Energy Requirement
(MJ ME/day) (f)
90 Steers 0.5
Cow/calf units 0
Steers 60
Cow/calf units 132
Animal feed requirement
(kgDM/day)
(g) g = f ÷c
Herd pasture intake (kgDM/day)
(h) h = a x g
Total timeframe pasture
intake (kgDM)
(i) i = h x e
Steers 60 ÷ 8 = 7.5
c/c units 132 ÷ 8 = 16.5*
= 200 x 7.5 = 1,500
= 80 x 16.5 = 1,320
= 1,500 + 1,320 =
2,820
= 2,820 x 90 = 253,800
Step 3 – How do we get there?
Future Growth
Month Days in month
(j)
Pasture Growth rate
(kg DM/ha/day)(k)
Area (ha)
(l)
Total grown/month
(kgDM) = j x k x l
January 31 5 200 = 31 x 5 x 200 = 31,000
February 28 5 200 = 28 x 5 x 200 = 28,000
March 31 10 200 = 31 x 10 x 200 = 62,000
Total Growth (m) 121,000
42 Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle
Agriculture Victoria
Converting pasture deficit into
supplementaryfeedrequirement
Following on from the tactical feed budget, the
option of grazing the pastures down to
1,000 kg DM/ha is selected in this case, resulting in
an apparent deficit of 52,800 kgDM. It has been
decided that pellets will be purchased to fill this
feed gap. The pellets have an energy value of
12 MJ ME/kgDM and have a dry matter of 90%.
How much pellet needs to be purchased?
Determine total energy shortage
Energy in pasture*
MJ ME/kgDM
(c)
x
Feed Balance
Deficit
kgDM
=
Total energy
shortage
MJ ME
8 52,800 422,400
DeterminekgDMofsupplementrequired
Total energy
shortage
MJ ME
÷
Energy value of
supplement
MJ ME/kgDM
=
Supplement
required
kgDM
422,400 12 35,200
Determine ‘as bought’ amount of supplement
Supplement
required
kgDM
÷
Dry Matter % of
supplement
(expressed as a
decimal)
=
‘As Bought’
supplement
required
kg
35,200 0.9 39,111
* This figure comes from box (c) on the Tactical Feed Budget
So, if purchasing pellets that are 12 MJ ME/kgDM
and 90% dry matter, 39.11 tonnes would be
required to fill the deficit calculated on the tactical
feed budget.
Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle 43
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Pearson’s Square – for use when no
pasture is available
It is important to consider both the energy and
protein levels of the feed on offer to stock. Buying
in feed that doesn’t meet the needs of the cattle
or feeding at the wrong levels can quickly become
a costly mistake.
A method called Pearson’s Square allows two
supplements being fed to be balanced in the diet
in terms of both energy and protein.
Feed 1 Barley 13 MJ ME/kgDM 12% Crude Protein 85% dry matter
Feed 2 Hay 9 MJ ME/kgDM 9% Crude Protein 85% dry matter
Pearson’sSquare–Balancingthedietforenergy
and protein
Example: 500 kg cows with 1-month-old calves at
foot.
From Table 6.3, we can see that these cow/calf units
require 105 MJ ME/day in energy and 10% crude
protein and can eat a maximum 10.7 kgDM in a day.
The following feed is available:
Protein % in
feed 1
(barley)
12
Protein % in
feed 2
(hay)
9
Parts of
feed 2 (hay)
required in diet
2
Parts of
feed 1 (barley)
required in diet
1
Required
Protein %
10
Difference in protein between
feed 1 and required protein level
gives the parts of
feed 2 required in the diet
Proportion (%) of feed 1 (barley) in diet = (1÷3) x 100 = 33% or 0.33
Proportion (%) of feed 2 (hay) in diet = (2÷3) x 100 = 67% or 0.67
Total parts (E) = 2+1 = 3
44 Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle
Agriculture Victoria
Amount of energy needed from feed 1 (barley)
Proportion of
barley in diet
x
Animal
requirements
MJ ME/day
=
Amount of energy
needed from
barley
MJ ME/day
0.33 105 35 MJ ME/day
kgDMrequiredoffeed1(barley)
Amount of energy
needed from
barley
MJ ME/day
÷
Energy value of
feed 1 (barley)
MJ ME/kgDM
=
Amount required
of feed 1 (barley)
kgDM
35 13 2.7
Amountoffeedrequiredonanasfedbasis(barley)
Amount required
of feed 1 (barley)
kgDM
÷
Dry matter of
feed 1 (barley)
(expressed as a
decimal, i.e. 90%
= 0.9)
=
Kg as fed per head
per day of feed 1
(barley)
2.7 0.9 3.0
Amount of energy needed from feed 2 (hay)
Proportion of hay
in diet
x
Animal
requirements
MJ ME/day
=
Amount of energy
needed from hay
MJ ME/day
0.67 105 70 MJ ME/day
kgDMrequiredoffeed2(hay)
Amount of energy
needed from hay
MJ ME/day
÷
Energy value of
feed 2 (hay)
MJ ME/kgDM
=
Amount required
of feed 2 (hay)
kgDM
70 9 7.8
Amountoffeedrequiredonanasfedbasis(hay)
Amount required
of feed 2 (hay)
kgDM
÷
Dry matter of
feed 2 (hay)
(expressed as a
decimal, i.e. 85%
= 0.85)
=
Kg as fed per head
per day of feed 2
(hay)
7.8 0.85 9.2
Each cow calf unit requires 3.0 kg barley as fed
(2.7 kgDM) and 9.2 kg hay as fed (7.8 kgDM) to meet
the energy requirements of 105 MJ ME/head/day
and to supply the required protein level.
It is important to check if the calculated diet can
be consumed by the cow-calf unit. In this case, the
cow-calf unit can consume 10.7 kgDM and the
formulated diet will be providing 10.5 kgDM
(2.7 kgDM from the barley and 7.8 kgDM from the hay).
This diet is balanced for protein and energy and
will allow the cow to maintain body condition and
the calf to grow.
Note: With natural variation between cattle,
responses to feed levels will differ. It is important to
monitor stock condition regularly and adjust the diet
accordingly. If stock are losing condition, increase
the energy on offer. Check they can eat enough of
the diet on offer to satisfy their requirements.
See Appendix IV for a blank Pearson’s Square
worksheet.
Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle 45
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Other considerations
Minerals
When animals are removed from pasture and rely
solely on a drought ration, mineral
supplementation may be required. Calcium
(agricultural lime) and sodium (salt) are the most
commonly required mineral supplements.
Calcium
Diets that have high grain percentages (greater
than 50%) are generally calcium deficient.
To prevent calcium deficiency, add ground
agricultural limestone to cereal grain at a ratio of
2 parts limestone per 100 parts grain (2%). If
roughage represents 50% or more of the diet,
calcium is generally not required.
Sodium
Diets that contain high grain percentages may
require sodium (salt) to be added to the ration to
prevent a sodium deficiency.
Add 1 parts of salt to 100 parts grain (1%).
If stock water contains high levels of salt then
additional supplementation may not be required.
Buffers
As a precaution against grain poisoning (acidosis),
buffers such as sodium bentonite or sodium
bicarbonate can be mixed with the grain. Sodium
bentonite or sodium bicarbonate should be mixed
at a ratio of 2 parts of powder per 100 parts of
grain (2% or 2 kg per 100kg grain). After the first 30
days of grain feeding, the amount of buffer can be
reduced to 1% (see Chapter 7).
Vitamins
Vitamins A and E are the most common vitamin
deficiencies that develop when there is no green
feed. A single intramuscular injection of A, D and E
will protect against both deficiencies.
Vitamin A
Cattle that have not had access to green pasture,
green coloured hay or yellow maize for an
extended period (3 months) will be deficient in
Vitamin A. Cattle will develop a Vitamin A
deficiency in a shorter time off green feed than
sheep. An injection of A, D and E will correct a
deficiency for around 3 months.
Vitamin E
The amount of Vitamin E in grain, hay and straw
can vary significantly. A deficiency may develop in
some drought rations. An injection of Vitamins A, D
and E will correct any deficiency.
Improving the feed value of
low-quality feeds
Treating straw with urea to improve the
protein level of the diet
Straw can be a cheap and available source of
roughage (fibre) during a drought, however, it is a
poor quality feed for ruminants. Being very high in
fibre, low in energy and very low in protein, makes
straw slow to digest. Cattle physically can’t eat
enough to satisfy even their maintenance energy
requirements.
Treating straw with urea can lift the feed value of
the straw and, when fed in conjunction with low
quantities of grain or pellets, can provide a low-
cost maintenance diet for cattle.
Treating straw with urea provides the microbes in
the rumen with a protein source resulting in
improved rates of digestion of the straw.
As the straw is digested more rapidly, appetite is
increased, allowing the animal to consume a
volume of feed that more closely meets their
needs.
As with any new feed, animals will take 3-7 days to
adjust to eating the urea-treated straw, which will
smell different to untreated straw.
Feed analysis results have shown that treating
straw with urea can increase protein levels by
2-14%. However, the straw’s metabolisable energy
value is not improved. To provide the extra energy
required it is important to continue a low level of
grain feeding.
Figure 6.1: Urea-treated straw being fed out in hay
racks.
46 Chapter 6 / Feeding cattle
Agriculture Victoria
How to treat the straw
Treated straw is obtained by the addition of 5%
weight to weight (w/w) of urea plus 80-85% w/w
water.
To treat 1 tonne of straw, dissolve 50 kg of urea
fertiliser in 800-850 litres of water. The solution
should be mixed in a large container, such as a
drum or an old water tank and sprayed onto the
straw using a pressure pump and hose.
A big square bale weighing 400 kg will need 20 kg
of urea dissolved in 320-340 litres of water.
After spraying, it is critical that the treated straw is
contained in a reasonably airtight condition (e.g.
covered in polythene or old bunker tarpaulin) to
facilitate the chemical reaction. The straw should
be kept covered for 7-10 days in the summer
months or 2-3 weeks in winter after treatment.
Figure 6.2: Urea-treated straw covered with tarp
for 7-10 days in summer.
The urea on treated straw is non-toxic. Urea is
only toxic to animals if they drink the urea solution
or consume a mouthful of urea granules.
When urea is diluted with water at the rates
recommended and sprayed over straw in the
method described here, the risks are eliminated.
Urea poisoning can occur with malfunctioning of
liquid urea feeders or with homemade urea
blocks. After rain or heavy dew, the blocks may
become soft and stock are able to eat them too
quickly and consume too much.
Molasses as an energy source
Molasses has a good level of energy (11 MJ ME) but
is very low in protein. It can be added to the
urea-water mixes and sprayed on poor quality
straw to improve both palatability and protein
levels when straw is the main component of a diet.
When molasses is added in quantities, up to 12% of
total DM, the sugars in the molasses assist with
the digestion of fibre.
In feedlot rations, it is added at levels up to 12-14%.
This level of molasses increases the palatability,
binds fine dust particles and assists with rumen
function.
The energy value of cane molasses decreases
rapidly when it is added at levels above 30% of the
total ration. Too much molasses causes digestive
upsets and reduces animal performance.
Another use for molasses is as a carrier for feeding
urea. Urea-molasses products come in block or
liquid form and can be bought or homemade.
The nitrogen in urea assists animals to digest very
fibrous feeds, such as standing dry paddock feed.
The sugars in the molasses can also assist in this
digestion.
Economics of molasses feeding
Molasses can be an expensive form of energy.
Animal performance would be higher and achieved
more economically if grain or pellets were fed with
poor quality roughage instead of molasses.
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Chapter 7 / Feeding grain to cattle 47
CHAPTER 7
Feeding grain to cattle
This chapter looks at the precautions that need to
be taken when feeding grain to cattle.
Key messages
• Graincanbeacost-effectivesourceofenergy
in drought rations.
• Introducecattletograingradually.
• Ensureroughage(bre)levelsareadequate.
• Bufferswillreducetheriskofgrainpoisoning
(acidosis).
• Processing(suchascrackingorrolling)can
markedly increase the grain’s energy
availability.
• Monitorgrainfedcattlecarefullyforsignsof
acidosis.
Grain is a common supplementary feed during a
drought. It can have higher energy and protein
levels than hay, making it an attractive
supplement for animals that have higher
nutritional requirements, such as young growing
stock or cows and calves.
There are some risks when feeding grain to cattle,
but they can generally be minimised by careful
management.
Introducing cattle to grain
Take care when introducing cattle to a grain
ration to avoid potential grain poisoning
(acidosis).
Grain contains high carbohydrate levels and
should be introduced gradually so the bacteria in
the animal’s rumen have time to adapt to the new
feed. Shy feeders and younger animals may need
to be separated from more dominant animals to
reduce uneven consumption.
Cattle should be accustomed to being fed with
hay before grain is introduced to the ration. The
hay can then be reduced over 2-3 weeks, as the
amount of grain in the ration is increased.
Importantly, roughage (hay, straw or dry pasture)
should always make up 30% of the total ration.
Where there is some roughage left in the paddock,
the amount of hay in the ration can be reduced
accordingly. Once paddock roughage is depleted,
however, some hay will have to be fed.
Introduce grain by feeding 0.5 kg/head/day.
Maintain this amount until all cattle are eating
some grain (1-3 days). During the initial feeding,
place the grain on top of the hay to ensure
animals consume some roughage.
Increase the amount of grain by 0.5 kg/head every
second day until the desired amount in the ration
is reached.
Watch closely for sickness and other health
problems when feeding grain, particularly during
the introductory phase.
Symptoms of grain poisoning (acidosis) include
reduced or absent appetite, weakness, staggering,
diarrhoea, bloat and lameness. In severe cases,
the animal can become dehydrated and may be
unable to stand. Severely affected animals should
receive veterinary treatment, while more
moderately affected animals should be removed
and fed a hay-only diet until they appear healthy.
These animals can be re-introduced to grain
using the same principles applied during the
initial introduction.
Frequency of feeding
Feed cattle daily during the build-up of grain
rations. As soon as cattle are on a full ration and
accustomed to eating grain, feed every second
day (ensuring twice the daily quantity is supplied).
Experience has shown that every two days is
about the longest acceptable feeding interval.
Early weaned animals in poor condition or animals
being fed for weight gain should be fed daily.
How to feed – trough or on the ground?
It is best to feed grain in troughs to prevent
wastage and minimise intake of soil. Various forms
of troughs can be improvised. For example, two
rows of logs can be placed on the ground about
450-600 mm apart and joined with old
corrugated iron as flooring. Other options include
200 litre drums split down the middle or tractor
tyres cut in half.
If the grain is fed out on the ground, place the
grain in heaps rather than trailing it out.
Feeding processed grain (rolled or crushed) on the
ground is not recommended, as too much is likely
to be wasted.
48 Chapter 7 / Feeding grain to cattle
Agriculture Victoria
Changing a ration
Take particular care when changing sources or
batches of grain, particularly changing from one
type of grain to another, e.g. barley to wheat. The
new batch of grain ideally would be ‘shandied’
together with the old batch for about a week. If it
is not possible to mix the two grains together for a
week, the rate of feeding of the new type of grain
should be halved and gradually increased back
up to target levels by increasing the rate of
feeding by 0.5 kg/head/day.
Roughage (fibre)
Roughage (dry paddock feed, hay, straw, etc) is a
key ingredient in drought rations for healthy
rumen function. It should make up at least 30% of
a ration.
When grain is the source of energy and protein in
a diet, the roughage need not be of a high quality.
Often straw and low-quality hay will suffice.
Around 30% neutral detergent fibre (NDF) is an
ideal amount of fibre in a diet. The NDF level of a
ration can be determined from a feed analysis.
Other grain additives
Where grain makes up most of an animal’s daily
ration, 1% (1 kg/100 kg of grain) of ground
agricultural limestone should be added to the
ration. This makes up for a shortage of calcium in
the grain.
For lactating or young animals on grain rations, 1%
(1 kg/100 kg of grain) of common salt (sodium
chloride) should be added to correct a potential
sodium deficiency.
Processing grain
Feeding processed (cracked or rolled) grain to
cattle has significant nutritional benefits
compared to whole grain. Table 7.1 illustrates the
impact of processing on the digestibility of wheat,
barley, maize and sorghum.
A kilogram of processed grain will provide more
energy to an animal than a kilogram of whole grain.
Deciding whether to process grain for cattle
depends on several factors:
• Thegrainused:Processingmarkedlyincreases
the digestibility of wheat and barley, whereas
the digestibility of oats and lupins is only
slightly increased.
• Theavailabilityofequipmenttoprocessgrain
and at what cost: The coarse crush achieved
with a roller mill is superior to the dusty result
from a hammermill.
• Easeoffeeding:Wholegraincanbefedonthe
ground; crushed grain should be fed in troughs.
• Grainpoisoning:Wheregrainisfedseparately
from roughage, whole grain is considerably
safer to feed than crushed grain. When grain is
mixed with chopped roughage however,
crushed grain can be fed more safely.
Grain poisoning
Grain poisoning, or acidosis, is the main problem
associated with feeding grain to cattle.
Grain poisoning occurs when the digestion of
sugars and starch in the feed cause a rapid
accumulation of acid in the rumen. If the acid
accumulates faster than the body can handle
there will be reduced rumen function and
potentially a loss of important rumen bacteria.
Severe acidosis will result in death, while milder
cases will cause a loss of appetite and production.
The type and treatment of grain will influence its
potential to cause grain poisoning. Whole grain is
less likely to cause grain poisoning than processed
(crushed or rolled grain) of the same type, such as
barley. Coarsely crushed grain is less likely to
cause grain sickness than finely crushed grain.
Fibrous grains, such as oats, are safer to feed than
grains with little fibre, such as wheat. A feed analysis
will indicate the level of fibre a ration or feed contains.
Table 7.1: Digestibility of whole versus
processed grain.
Whole
%
digestibility
Processed
%
digestibility
Increased
digestibility
from
processing
Wheat,
Triticale
63 86 36%
Barley 53 85 60%
Oats 77 81 5%
Lupins,
Peas
76 86 13%
(Reference: Toland, P.C. (1976) The digestibility of wheat,
barley or oat grain fed either whole or rolled at restricted
levels with hay to steers. AJEAA 16: 71-75)
Chapter 7 / Feeding grain to cattle 49
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
A number of measures can be taken in addition to
the controlled introduction of grain into a ration to
minimise the threat of grain poisoning.
Grain poisoning – or lactic acidosis – can result
from:
• introducingcattletooquicklytohighlevelsof
grain, or feeding too much grain too soon
• insufcienttroughspaceorfeedarearesulting
in aggressive cows overeating
• changingfromalowerenergygraintooneof
higher energy (for example, changing from oats
at 10 MJ ME/kgDM to wheat at 13 MJ ME/kgDM,
is a 30% increase in energy;. sometimes
different batches of the same type of feed will
cause problems
• feedinggrain-basedpellets,whichareusually
90% processed grain; when introducing them
to cattle take the same precautions as when
feeding grain
• insufcientroughagefedwithgrain
• insufcientaccesstoroughagebyshyfeeders
• accidents–storageareasarenotsealedto
prevent stock access.
Treatment for grain poisoning depends on the
severity of the symptoms shown:
• mildlacticacidosis–stilleating,mildbloat,
with or without porridgy faeces
• moderatetoseverelacticacidosis–noteating,
porridgy scours, obviously sick with
dehydration evident
• severelacticacidosis–downandunableto
rise, dehydration, watery scour.
Treatment of grain poisoning may involve a range
of responses:
• Mildlacticacidosismaysimplyrequireremoval
of grain feeding, a drench with 120 g of sodium
bicarbonate orally and hay feeding only.
• Severeacidosiswillrequireintensiveveterinary
attention; contact your local veterinarian.
• Aswithmanyanimalhealthissues,prevention
is better than cure. Adding a buffer such as
sodium bicarbonate or sodium bentonite to a
grain-based ration reduces the likelihood of
grain poisoning.
Buffers
Buffers are chemicals that counter the acidity of
grain in the rumen and help to prevent grain
poisoning.
To reduce the risk of grain poisoning during the
introductory period, add 2% (2 kg/100 kg of grain)
of either sodium bicarbonate or sodium bentonite
to the grain being fed out with roughage. After one
month of feeding grain the amount of buffer can
be reduced to 1%.
Other grain feeding problems
Calcium deficiency
Feeding grain over a prolonged period can result
in calcium deficiency due to the low calcium and
high phosphorus levels in grain. This is overcome
by adding ground limestone to the feed (up to 1.5%
of the ration by weight).
Vitamin A deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency can occur after a prolonged
shortage of green feed. This is unusual in southern
Australia as sufficient Vitamin A can be stored in
the liver to satisfy animal requirements for at least
six months. A Vitamin A, D and E injection can be
given to prevent this problem.
Urolithiasis
Urolithiasis (bladder and urinary stones) can be a
problem in steers fed grain for long periods.
Addition of ground limestone balances the
excessive phosphorous levels likely to predispose
cattle to this condition. Adding 1% salt to the ration
will encourage higher water consumption, thus
reducing the risk of urolithiasis problems.
Polioencephalomalacia
Polioencephalomalacia (PEM) occurs due to an
induced deficiency in thiamine (Vitamin B1). It can
occur in feedlot cattle and cattle on high-
concentrate diets, especially when minimal
roughage is available. Typical signs include
blindness, aimless wandering and a ‘star gazing’
appearance. Seek veterinary attention for
diagnosis and treatment.
CHAPTER 8
Feeding in stock
containment areas
Agriculture Victoria
50 Chapter 8 / Feeding in stock containment areas
This chapter covers why and when to use stock
containment areas. It also provides information on
how to design and construct a stock containment
area and how to manage stock during containment.
Key messages
• Itisimportanttoremovestockfrompaddocks
while around 70% ground cover remains.
• Stockcontainmentareascanbepartofafarm
management system outside of droughts.
• Containingstockhelpstoprotectvegetative
cover on pastures or failed crops and allows
pastures to recover rapidly after the break.
• Itisimportanttoconsideryourownsiteand
method of operation in designing a
containment area.
• Soiltype,slopeandproximitytootherhandling
facilities are important considerations.
• Animalsincontainmentneedtobeprovided
with 100% of their diet, including roughage,
energyrequirementsandminerals.They
requireregularmonitoring.
Why use stock containment areas
A stock containment area (SCA) is a carefully
selected, fenced section of the property that is set
up to intensively hold, feed and water livestock to
protect soil and pasture resources during adverse
seasons. This may be following a fire, during
drought or late autumn breaks, or for other farm
management activities, such as quarantining new
stock and holding stock ready for other handling
tasks.
Feeding in stock containment areas should be
considered:
• toprotectvegetativecoveronpasturesor
failed crops, and to allow pastures to recover
rapidly after the break
• whereweedsinbrought-infeedareaconcern
• toprotectareasvulnerabletoerosion
• wherestockarelosingweightonfulldrought
rations in paddocks
• tofacilitatestockfeeding,watering,monitoring
and handling.
Lot feeding for production is a separate issue and
is not covered in this chapter. If you are
considering feedlotting, seek specialist advice
from your local stock adviser. Feedlots must meet
local government planning requirements and the
Australian Animal Welfare Standards and
Guidelines for Cattle.
Stock containment areas are for short term use
during adverse seasons when seasonal conditions
restrict or prevent the animals from grazing.
When to use a stock
containment area
During a drought there is a high risk of losing
valuable soil as pasture cover reduces. It is
important to remove stock while around 70%
ground cover remains. If pasture cover drops
below about 70%, wind will start to blow away soil
particles, causing erosion and loss of valuable
nutrients and topsoil. Bare areas will also be more
prone to washing, when rain does come. Refer to
Figures 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3 for how to identify the
amount of groundcover.
Before deciding when to remove stock from
pastures, consider the factors that will affect
potential pasture loss and erosion, such as slope
and soil type. Allow for the fact that once stock have
been removed, ground cover is likely to decrease
further as a result of wind erosion, particularly in
pastures dominated by annual species.
Improved pastures - established at considerable
cost in money and time - are easily lost if
continuously overgrazed. They should be among
the first paddocks to consider destocking.
Chapter 8 / Feeding in stock containment areas 51
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Figure 8.2: About 70% groundcover. Bare patches
arequitelargeandstarttojoinup,creating
opportunities for soil movement.
Figure 8.3: About 85% groundcover.
Figure 8.1: About 50% groundcover. A paddock
thathasbeengrazedthislowisproneto
considerable topsoil losses through wind and
water erosion.
Site selection
The location of the containment area is important
and it should be set up as a permanent structure,
like cattle yards, for future emergencies (drought,
fire or flood) or other management opportunities.
The site should be accessible all year round. Avoid
sites adjacent to public roads (particularly high
traffic roads) or close to property boundary fences.
The site should:
• haveamoderateslopeandwell-drained,
stable soil such as a clay or clay loam
• beeasilymonitored
• containnoimportantremnantvegetation
• haveshade,shelterandgooddrainage
• haveaccesstogoodqualitywaterandclean
facilities
• minimiseproblemswithnoiseandsmellthat
will cause concern to you or your neighbours.
Yardsshouldbeconstructedacrosstheslopeand
aligned with the natural contour of the land to
avoid yard-to-yard drainage. Shade and shelter
must be provided. If possible site yards adjacent
to existing shelter belts or vegetation.
Dust can be an issue, so consider shelter from
prevailing winds.
Stock need to be checked daily, so the site should
be easy to reach to save time. Proximity to other
stock-handling facilities is helpful.
No more than 20% of the site should contain
remnant vegetation. Any existing trees in the
containment yard/s should be fenced at least one
metre around the tree. This will prevent animals
ringbarking the trees and reduce the impact of
compaction and nutrient loads (if native trees).
Existing trees are valuable in providing shade; you
don’t want to lose them.
Consider water quality in terms of runoff. The
stock containment area should be set back from
watercourses and water storages to protect
against risk of nutrient run-off. A nutrient filter
should be established on the down slope side of
the site to prevent runoff into farm water storages
and watercourses if applicable. The filter may be
provided by a vegetation buffer strip or by
constructing sediment traps from wire netting or
straw bales.
52 Chapter 8 / Feeding in stock containment areas
Agriculture Victoria
Figure 8.4: Nutrient filter to prevent
contamination of watercourses or storages.
Design
Size
Adult cows, yearlings and early-weaned calves
should all be yarded and fed separately because
of their different feed requirements. Allow
10-15 m
2
/head. Stocking heavier rather than lighter
has the advantage of increasing soil compaction
in the containment area to reduce dust,
particularly on lighter soils.
For optimal animal welfare and husbandry, the
maximum desirable mob size is 160 head.
Layout
It is important to consider your own site and
method of operation in designing a containment
area, including the number of containment yards
you require.
A number of different layouts have been used
successfully, including yards with adjacent
laneways for feeding and stock movement.
One feeding yard (with separate holding yards)
can be used for the different classes of stock if
they can be fed at different times. This can reduce
the need for extra feeding troughs.
A separate yard for grain feeding troughs will
allow you to mix feeds and additives before stock
start to eat. Also consider vehicle access, ease of
filling feed troughs, water and ease of cleaning.
Avoid driving into the yard while animals are
present.
Make sure you provide adequate subdivision to
enable different classes of stock to be separated,
including shy feeders or sick animals. If you are
considering containing more than one group, you
will need good subdivisional fencing as well as
containment site boundary fencing.
Feed troughs or feeders (including hay) should be
located on the opposite side of the yard to water
troughs to minimise the contamination of the
water source from food carried by the animals.
Consider your preferred method of feeding grain
– trail feeding, lick feeders or self-feeders. Lick
feeders and self-feeders can be installed in the
yard, but consider locating them on the boundary
to enable filling from outside.
If using a feeding laneway the use of iron, purlins,
raised feeders, rubber or raised shade cloth
troughs for feeding grain are options – do not
feed directly onto the soil.
Figure 8.4: SCA design suggestions.
Chapter 8 / Feeding in stock containment areas 53
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Shade and shelter
Heat and cold stress both increase an animal’s
energy requirements. Shade and shelter should be
provided to minimise exposure to the extremes of
heat and cold and to reduce exposure to mid-
summer radiation. However, shade structures
should not impede the drying of the yard surface
or ventilation beneath the structure. There is
currently no minimum shade requirement for cattle.
Plan to plant shade trees outside the containment
area for long-term protection. Consider prevailing
winds and locate shade in the western half of the
pen – angle shade structures to the north-west to
maximise the shade provided during the hottest
part of the day.
Unprotected trees within containment yards will
die. If there are trees in the area you propose to
use, protect them with guards to stop ringbarking.
All existing trees should be protected at a
minimum of one metre around the tree using the
same standard of fencing as the boundary fences.
If there are no trees to provide shade, construct
your own. Shade cloth, stacked hay bales (secured
and fenced), galvanised sheeting and sheds are
all options that have been used.
Access and safety
Personal safety is of the utmost importance.
Design and construct facilities to minimise the risk
of injury.
Vehicle and trailer access to feeders or troughs is
easier when using feeding pens or laneways.
Ensure a vehicle can access the yards (when stock
are absent) to allow for cleaning and maintenance.
Also consider the ease of moving stock in and out
of containment from paddocks or into feeding
laneways.
Construction
Containment yards should be constructed as
permanent long-term facilities. Seven horizontal
wires and a plain top and bottom wire is
recommended. Fences should not contain any
barbed wire. Posts should be no more than five
metres apart and strainers should be stayed. The
use of metal or concrete strainers and posts is
recommended due to fire resistance and longevity.
Keep in mind that stock are likely to push up
against fencing or run into it – ensure it is
constructed to withstand this treatment.
Water
A good, reliable water supply is essential in stock
containment areas. Generally, stock will be fed
diets with very low water content and must be
supplied with water at all times.
Maximum desirable salt and magnesium levels for
stock water are given in Table 2.2.
Bore water should also be tested for minerals that
can be toxic at higher levels, such as magnesium.
Plan for a daily water consumption of
55 litres/head/day for weaners and up to
100 litres/head/day for lactating cows. Trough
space is less important than flow rate. Water
trough allowances do not need to be more than
required in a paddock – cattle will adjust and take
turns to drink at the trough. A good rule of thumb
is that the flow rate should pump enough water
for the herd in 2-3 hours.
Troughs need to be checked daily and cleaned
regularly.
Good quality water is critical – stock perform
better when they have access to fresh, clean and
cool water. Water should be low in salt, low in
organic matter, low in suspended clay and free of
other toxic substances such as blue-green algae
(see Chapter 2).
Feed
Allow 400-600 mm of trough space per animal.
Feed troughs can be bought or made cheaply from
materials like tractor tyres cut in half or 200 litre
drums split down the middle. Two rows of logs can
be placed on the ground about 450-600 mm
apart and joined with old corrugated iron as the
flooring.
Table 6.5 lists quantities for full hand feeding
(kg/head/day) for common classes of stock.
As stock will not have access to any pasture, it is
important to include roughage. Ideally, 30% hay
should be included but, as hay can be very
expensive and often simply not available during
droughts, the proportion can be reduced to an
absolute minimum of 20%. Hay in the diet will
reduce the risk of grain poisoning, especially with
grains of low fibre content, such as wheat and
barley. Oats has about 29% Neutral Detergent
Fibre (NDF) compared with barley at 14% NDF and
wheat at only 11% NDF.
Hay is the safest way to increase energy quickly in
cold or wet conditions.
As outlined in Chapter 7, the deficiencies likely to
occur with high grain diets during drought or lot
feeding are sodium, calcium, fibre and Vitamin A.
Adding 2% feed-grade sodium bicarbonate or
sodium bentonite for the first month and 1% after
that will lessen the risk of acidosis. In addition, 1%
feed-grade limestone to provide calcium and 0.5%
salt to provide sodium will be required.
It is better to start cattle on grain in the paddock
before introducing them to a feedlot situation (two
weeks). If you cannot do this, make sure that most
of the diet in the first two weeks is hay and then
increase the grain ration gradually. Start at
0.5 kg/head/day of grain and make up the rest of
the ration with hay.
54 Chapter 8 / Feeding in stock containment areas
Agriculture Victoria
Increase the amount of grain by 0.5 kg/head/day
every two days until the desired level of grain is
reached. Feed your best hay first and feed hay
before grain. Feed daily (see Chapter 7).
It may take a while to get the ration right and, as
the cost of feed is especially high during a
drought, consider weighing 20 or so cattle
regularly. Over and under feeding is costly. Aim to
keep older stock at a minimum fat score 2.5.
There will always be a number of cattle that do not
take to a containment feeding situation. They should
be identified early, removed and fed hay or sold.
Stressful weather conditions
Cold windy weather increases the cattle’s need for
energy-giving feed. Under such conditions,
drought rations should be increased by about
20%. The increase should be made up with
roughage (hay) if possible. Replace any feed
wasted as a result of rain damage with new feed.
Releasing cattle
Ruminants do best when their diets are changed
gradually. A sudden change from a grain diet to
short green feed when a drought breaks will result
in digestive upsets and weight loss as their rumen
adjusts to the new feed.
If the break is accompanied by cold, wet and windy
weather, this may reduce an animal’s inclination
to graze, which will further reduce their intake.
Release cattle from the containment area when
they have a full stomach. Continue feed for a few
weeks, gradually reducing the quantity.
Cows below fat score 3 with young calves have
high feed requirements and may need feeding
(both hay and grain) to continue until there is
adequate pasture available to meet their needs.
Pastures are likely to recover faster and provide
more winter feed if they are allowed to produce
some leaf area before the first grazing. See
Chapter 3 for information on pasture recovery
after a drought.
Animal health
Health issues during droughts are outlined in
Chapter 9. Experiences with stock containment
areas have shown that grain poisoning is the most
common cause of death. For more information on
how to prevent grain poisoning refer to Chapter 7.
There have been problems with changes in
batches of processed feeds and with new sources
of grain. Some caution is needed when changing
to a new load of feed.
One option would be to mix the new and old over
a number of feeds. If this is not practical, when a
new batch of grain is being introduced, cut back
the quantity and gradually increase it to enable
the animals to get used to it. During this process
make up the remainder of the ration with hay.
Cattle should receive a booster vaccination
against clostridial diseases such as
enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) at least three
weeks before entering a containment area.
Vaccines such as 5-in-1 or 7-in-1 can be used. Talk
to your vet about the most appropriate vaccine
for your district. Remember, cattle that have not
been vaccinated before require two vaccinations
four weeks apart to provide protection, then an
annual booster.
They should be drenched before coming into the
containment area and ideally drenched again
before being released.
Stock need to be monitored daily and sick animals
removed. Avoiding stress such as boggy ground,
overcrowding, dust and irregular feeding will help
reduce diseases such as salmonellosis,
coccidiosis, pinkeye and respiratory diseases such
as pneumonia.
Regular cleaning of feed and water troughs will
help prevent disease.
Other considerations
Although there are benefits in reduced labour
when feeding animals in a stock containment
area versus the paddock, regular monitoring is
still a time commitment. This can be somewhat
alleviated by locating the yards in an accessible
location. It may be possible to release stock if
livestock managers are away for an extended
period of time, providing the appropriate care is
taken and enough feed is made available to the
animals in the paddock.
It is important to consider your own circumstances
when deciding to use containment areas,
particularly whether you can access the
appropriate feed, the cost of feed in relation to the
cost of production for the class of stock, and
whether you can regularly check on the animals
during their time in containment.
Managing a stock containment area involves a
transition from a broadacre manager to an
intensive manager. Farmers who fed in containment
areas in previous droughts reported that it was a
worthwhile exercise and have now made it part of
their future drought management strategies.
Feeding in a containment area means you can
have better control over weight loss and gain and
come out of a drought with valuable land assets
and stock numbers intact.
Further information is available at
www.agriculture.vic.gov.au/drought
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Chapter 9 / Animal health and welfare 55
CHAPTER 9
Animal health
and welfare
This chapter outlines some key management
factors and diseases that need to be considered.
Key messages
• Youareobligedtoprovideproperand
sufficient food, water and shelter to stock at all
times.
• Manydiseasesaffectingcattlecanbea
greater problem in drought due to the stressed
condition of stock.
If you have any concerns about the health and
welfare of your stock during a drought, contact
your local veterinarian or District Veterinary
Officer.
Health and welfare problems in
beef herds in a drought
Droughts inevitably result in less-than-adequate
amounts of paddock feed. The effects of this
shortfall on animal health will depend on the class
of livestock (e.g. steers versus pregnant cattle), the
body condition of the cattle as they enter a
drought and the length of time feed is short.
Classes of livestock affected
Breeding stock
Cows in late pregnancy should receive priority in
feeding programs as the growing foetus greatly
increases the cow’s energy requirements. A breeding
cow’s energy intake needs to continue to rise after
calving and peak at six weeks into lactation.
Information on energy and protein requirements
of breeding cattle can be found in Chapter 6,
Tables 6.2 and 6.3.
A fat pregnant cow encountering an energy
deficiency will burn its own body fat to supply
energy. This will work for a short time, but if the
energy shortfall continues, the cow may suffer
from pregnancy toxaemia or ketosis. A sudden
decrease in energy in a heavily pregnant cow can
lead to pregnancy toxaemia; a more gradual or
chronic decrease in energy can predispose the
cow to ketosis.
In both conditions, the liver becomes affected by
the mobilised fat and the cow becomes sick due
to liver failure and the effect of the breakdown
products of the fat. Cows become staggery and
go down, are unable to rise, refuse to eat or drink
and eventually die. Prevention by supplementary
feeding is preferable to treatment, which is often
unsuccessful.
A light-conditioned pregnant cow, encountering a
drought, will continue to lose condition, become
weak and go down. Compared to the cow affected
with pregnancy toxaemia, this cow is not sick, but
physically lacks the strength to rise. Pay attention
to feeding these cows in early to mid-pregnancy;
they will become a real problem with this
condition if the drought extends into their last
three months of pregnancy.
The two most important factors affecting
pregnancy rates in cows are body fat score at
calving and the level of nutrition after calving. See
Chapter 4 for further information on impact of
nutrition and fat score at and post calving.
It is a good management practice when
pregnancy testing, to request your veterinarian to
identify cows expected to be early and late calvers
(this will require relatively early pregnancy testing
from about six weeks after the end of joining).
In times of drought, early calvers have higher
conception rates in the following joining than late
calvers.
If the late calvers are identified, it is possible to sell
them or preferentially feed them to improve their
body condition score at calving and consequently
increase their conception rates.
Similarly, bull fertility is related to body condition.
Semen quality is determined about two months
before joining, so it is essential to maintain bulls in
good body condition well before mating starts.
Dry stock
Dry stock have the lowest feed requirement and
should not be overfed at the expense of breeding
stock.
56 Chapter 9 / Animal health and welfare
Agriculture Victoria
Grain feeding problems
There are many advantages in using grain to feed
cattle in drought, however there are also some
potential animal health problems (see Chapter 7).
Poisoning and chemical residues
Poisoning can be a problem as hungry animals
will eat plants they would not normally eat (e.g.
bracken fern) and find other poisons, such as
arsenic and lead, in their pursuit of feed.
Take care with garden trimmings, which are often
poisonous, and lawn clippings with organochlorine
(e.g. heptachlor, chlordane), as these may result in
unacceptable residues in meat at slaughter. Refer
to the end of Chapter 5 for information on
chemical residues.
Hungry stock, including transported or yarded
cattle, should be fed some hay before being
released onto a fresh paddock or ‘failed’ crop to
minimise the risk of some poisonings and
photosensitisation.
Urea poisoning
Urea is a useful supply of non-protein nitrogen for
the rumen microbes but take care when
supplementary feeding. For example, poisoning
occurs when excess urea is consumed:
• asaresultofinadequatemixingoffeedor
roller drum mixes
• whenlickblockscrumbleordevelopadish
from licking that can hold rain water and
dissolve urea.
Signs of toxicity include abdominal pain, shivering,
salivation, bloat and death.
Diagnosis and treatment is best made by a vet,
but an emergency treatment that may give relief
is oral vinegar at a dosage of four litres for an
adult beast.
The effect of disease on drought-
affected cattle
Conditions that afflict normal cattle can have more
serious effects on cattle in poor body condition.
Internal parasites (worms and fluke)
Those classes of cattle that may not normally be
treated (e.g. mature cows that are not normally
worm drenched) may need treatment during feed
shortages.
An increase in the rate of pick up of larvae (e.g. by
cattle grazing short green pasture) and the
reduced nutrition of the stock can increase
susceptibility to the effects of a parasite burden.
By the time scouring is visible, the animal’s gut will
have already been severely damaged, adding to
the problems of an animal already under
nutritional stress.
Severe parasite burdens will reduce the
effectiveness of an expensive drought-feeding
program. The basis for an appropriate program
during dry times is monitoring for worm burdens
and effective drenching. See your local animal
health adviser for more advice.
Lice
Lice will have a worse effect on cattle when they
are in poor condition. The amount of damage to
hides, trees, fences, gates and troughs is
proportional to the number of lice. Cattle lice
numbers build up in the cooler months reaching a
peak toward the end of winter.
Bottlejaw
Bottlejaw or fluid under the jaw is normally caused
by low blood protein. This may occur in
association with liver fluke, and can also occur in
worm-infested stock and stock in poor condition.
It can also be a symptom of Johne’s disease
(paratuberculosis).
Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is another disease that can occur in
cattle under stress and congregating to be hand fed.
Severe scouring of blood-stained faeces will occur.
This condition is normally seen in younger stock.
Chapter 9 / Animal health and welfare 57
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Pulpy kidney (enterotoxaemia)
Pulpy kidney is an acute toxaemia caused by
clostridial bacteria in the intestine. A change of
diet and thus a slowing of the movement of food
through the gut – such as during grain feeding, lot
feeding, periods of time off feed when yarding and
transporting – provides the ideal environment for
pulpy kidney to occur.
Cattle under 2-3 years old are most susceptible to
pulpy kidney. Generally, the best conditioned,
fastest growing stock are the ones most likely to
develop the condition.
There is no practical treatment and most affected
stock will die.
The disease can be prevented by vaccination.
Previously vaccinated stock should be vaccinated
with a pulpy kidney or 5-in-1 or 7-in-1 booster two
weeks before the start of hand feeding or before a
major change in feed type. Unvaccinated stock
require two doses – six weeks and two weeks
before starting to feed. Pregnant cows should have
a booster about two weeks before calving is
expected to start. This will protect the calf for six
to eight weeks. Calves need two vaccinations – one
at marking, and the second about four weeks later.
In high-risk circumstances, vaccine protection
may only last for three months, so repeated
vaccination should be considered.
Pneumonia and calf diphtheria
Nutritionally stressed stock and early-weaned
calves are more susceptible to respiratory
diseases, including pneumonia and calf
diphtheria. These diseases can be exacerbated
when stock congregate around feed troughs.
Veterinary attention should be sought if you
suspect any disease.
Pinkeye
Pinkeye can be a greater problem in drought, with
increased dust and stock congregating around
feed troughs.
Welfare considerations of drought
The welfare of animals is always of the utmost
importance. Stock owners and managers have an
obligation to, at all times, provide proper and
sufficient food, water and shelter for stock under
their care. Failure to do so contravenes the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (1986) and
may result in prosecution and, in extreme cases,
seizure of affected livestock.
Where sufficient food and/or water requirements
cannot be met, cattle should be moved or agisted
where feed and water is sufficient or they should
be sold or humanely slaughtered.
Producers should act early while stock are fit and
strong, as delays usually reduce the number of
choices available. Any decisions must be humane
and reasonable.
CHAPTER 10
Options for young
stock management
Agriculture Victoria
58 Chapter 10 / Options for young stock management
Youngstockneedcarefulmanagementduring
droughts for the benefit of young cattle and for
cow health and productivity. Options for managing
young stock are outlined in this chapter.
Key messages
• Earlyweaningcanprovidesignicantfeed
cost savings.
• Creepfeedingenablessupplementationof
calves while still suckling their mothers.
Early weaning of beef calves
Early weaning is a strategy to consider to deal
with a feed and water shortage. If you plan to feed
grain to early-weaned calves, you should review
the information in Chapter 7.
Key reasons for early weaning
Maintain herd fertility
Early weaning helps maintain cow fat score and
fertility of the breeding herd during and after a
drought. For example, weaning spring-calving
herds before cows fall below fat score of 3 will
mean they only need maintaining to calving for
acceptable post-calving return (interval) to oestrus
and conception rate. Cows down in condition are
more likely to cycle and conceive sooner after
calving if the calves are weaned prior to joining.
See Chapter 4 for additional information on cow
condition and the impact on cycling.
Save your pasture
It is more efficient to convert feed directly into calf
weight than milk for a cow and calf unit. Providing
the appropriate quality and quantity of feed to
dry cows and weaned calves, rather than cows
with calves at foot, can significantly reduce
feeding costs.
For example, a 500 kg liveweight cow, with a
7-month-old (240 kg liveweight) calf at foot would
require 150 MJ ME/day. If the feed they were
consuming had an energy value of 9 MJ ME/kgDM,
as a ‘unit’ they would require (150 MJ ME ÷
9 MJ ME/kgDM) 16.7 kg dry matter of that feed.
If the calf was early weaned, the cow’s energy
requirement returns to maintenance. For the
500 kg cow, that means she would only require
55 MJ ME/day or (55 MJ ME ÷ 9 MJ ME/kgDM)
6.1 kgDM of the feed.
The calf needs to continue to grow, so if its energy
requirement is budgeted for 0.5 kg liveweight
growth/day, the 240 kg calf would require
49.3 MJ ME/day or (49.3 MJ ME ÷ 9 MJ ME/kgDM)
5.5 kgDM of the feed.
So, instead of the 16.7 kgDM, they would require as
a cow/calf unit, the total for feeding them
separately becomes 11.6 kgDM (6.1 kgDM for the
cow and 5.5 kgDM for the weaned calf), a saving of
5.5 kgDM/day.
For a mob of 100 cows and calves, this becomes a
feed savings of 550 kgDM/day.
Cows that have had their calves weaned early can
be shifted to more marginal country so only
growing stock is run in the best paddocks.
Cows will need less feeding later on because they
will have lower weight loss once calves are weaned.
See Chapter 6 and Appendix II for additional
information on the energy and protein
requirements of cattle.
Better utilise supplementary feed
Early weaning will enable better allocation of
supplements to different classes of animals. By
weaning the calf early, the cow returns to
maintenance requirement energy levels. This
separation can provide a 30% saving in energy
across the farm, as seen above.
High energy and protein feeds can be fed to
young growing stock and lower quality feeds
(i.e. poorer quality hay) to the dry cows. This will
reduce the overall cost of supplements during the
drought.
Save water
Early weaning can reduce water requirements of
cows by up to 60%. Lactating cows require up to
100 litres/day. Although a calf’s water intake
approximately doubles when it is weaned and no
longer getting liquid via its mother’s milk, there is
a significant net saving in water from early weaning.
Chapter 10 / Options for young stock management 59
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Sell cull females earlier
Early weaning will enable earlier sale of non-
productive, cull or aged animals.
Deciding when to wean
Cow condition is a major consideration when
deciding when to wean. Wean early in order to
maintain cow herd productivity.
The appearance of calves should be considered.
Calves with dry, coarse coats (woody calves) are
almost certainly not receiving adequate milk from
their mothers. Early weaning is the best policy in
this situation. Calves with glossy coats are
receiving an adequate diet and early weaning can
be delayed.
In most cases, it is preferable to wean calves at
12 weeks or around 120 kg because they will then
require less protein and be easier to feed.
However, calves can be weaned onto high-quality
dry rations at five weeks of age or around 50 kg.
If cow survival is of concern, calves can be weaned
earlier than this, but a milk replacer will be required
if calves aren’t going to be sold as bobby calves.
In a drought, all calves older than 5-6 months
should certainly be weaned and fed separately.
Pre-weaning
Expose calves to the post-weaning supplement
while they are still on the cow. For example, if
calves are going to be given silage post-weaning,
feed silage to the cow-calf mobs a few times.
Rumen microbial populations can require up to
14 days to completely adapt to a new diet.
Consider introducing calves to post-weaning
supplements slowly via creep-feeding two weeks
before weaning.
Weaning
Avoid combining stressful procedures like
castration and dehorning with early weaning.
If yard weaning, where possible keep the yards
damp to minimise pink-eye. Fly traps and backline
insecticides will also reduce flies, a vector for the
disease. Eye ointments and patches of heavy
material will provide relief for affected calves and
prevent fly access.
When penning calves, allow at least 4 m
2
/calf,
increasing to 6-8 m
2
for calves approaching 150 kg.
Provide high-quality hay, such as lucerne hay, and
clean water troughs.
The high-quality ration required by early-weaned
calves will increase their risk of developing pulpy
kidney so vaccination for clostridial diseases is
important.
Post-weaning
Post-weaning nutrition
The younger the weaning age of the calf, the
higher its energy and protein requirements.
The energy and protein requirements of calves at
various growth rates are presented in Table 10.1.
Some possible diets for early-weaned calves are
shown in Table 10.2.
Unless the feed has adequate energy density, feed
intake and animal performance may be restricted
by small rumen capacity. Much of the pasture hay
and silage made in Australia is by itself unsuitable
for early-weaned calves.
Introduce any concentrate (e.g. grains) slowly.
Introduce it initially to calves at 300 g/head/day
and increase the amount by 100 g/head/day with
access to hay. Supplement the mix with a buffer to
prevent acidosis.
Insufficient protein in the ration of early-weaned
calves will result in short, dumpy cattle. Likely
sources of protein to use are lupin grain, peas,
linseed meal, canola meal and soybean meal.
Ideally, roughage should be chopped and mixed
with the other components of the calves’ diet
before feeding. Palatability is important to get
calves to eat sufficient fibre. Consider adding a
sweetener such as molasses or grape marc to a
mixed ration for young calves.
Calcium is the mineral most likely to be needed in
a diet for calves. Generally, calcium carbonate
(such as ground limestone) should be added to a
grain-based diet at the rate of 1½ parts per 100 (1.5%)
by weight of the grain in the diet.
Although good-quality roughage (lucerne or clover
hay) provides a reasonable supply of Vitamin A,
some supplementary Vitamin A is usually necessary
for early-weaned calves if they only have access
to a dry ration and have not had access to green
pasture for some time (e.g. three months).
This can be included in the feed, given orally or by
injection. Alternatively, complete rations in the form
of pellets are available from commercial suppliers.
Post-weaning management
Rather than letting calves roam barren paddocks,
consider weaning into containment areas where
they will tend to rest and feed, conserve energy
and minimise damage to paddocks.
Six weeks after weaning, draft off tail-enders into
a separate management group. Repeat this
process four months after weaning.
Post-weaning health program
Administer a booster 5-in-1 or 7-in-1 vaccination.
Youngcalvesarevulnerabletowormsandsoaworm
management program is particularly important.
60 Chapter 10 / Options for young stock management
Agriculture Victoria
Table10.1:Energyandproteinrequirementsofcalvesofvariousliveweights.
Liveweight (kg) Growth rate
(kg/day)
Maximum daily
% of liveweight
Dry matter
intake (kg)
Metabolisable
energy (ME)
requirement
(MJ ME/day)
Crude protein
% of dietary
dry matter
50
0 3.2 1.6 14 12
0.5 3.2 1.6 23 18
100
0 3.0 3.0 18 10
0.5 3.0 3.0 29 16
150
0 2.9 4.3 22 8
0.5 2.9 4.3 37 12
1.0 2.8 4.3 48 13
200
0 2.8 5.5 26 8
0.5 2.8 5.5 44 11
1.0 2.8 5.5 57 13
Table 10.2: Example diets for early-weaned calves.
Diet A % Diet B %
Barley* 55 Wheat* 65
Lupins 25 Linseed
meal
15
Hay 20 Lucerne
hay
20
* Plus calcium and a ‘buffer’.
Creep feeding of beef calves
Creep feeding is a useful management practice
that enables supplementation of calves while still
suckling on their mothers. Creep feeding allows
unweaned calves to be fed a supplement that is
not accessible to the cows.
The creep enclosure or creep gateway
Creep feeding simply involves a barrier that
blocks adult cattle, but allows calves to pass
through and gain access to better nutrition than is
available on the other side of the barrier.
The better nutrition can be in the form of grain or
pellets and some hay available in troughs or
self-feeders. Alternatively, the creep may allow
calves access to better quality grazing, such as a
lucerne stand or irrigated pasture.
Whether the creep feeding allows calves into an
enclosure or through into an adjacent paddock,
the critical factor is the width of the creep
openings that allow the calves, but not the cows,
to pass through. See Figures 10.1 and 10.2 for creep
enclosure examples.
The openings should be 400-450 mm wide. Ideally,
these vertical spacings should be adjustable and
there should be a number of them.
A gate frame about one metre high, with several
adjustable openings, is the most practical
arrangement as it can be used either as the
entrance to a creep enclosure or in a gateway that
allows calves access to more nutritious grazing.
Figure 10.1: Semi-permanent creep in a paddock
corner for supplementary feeding of calves
(aerial view).
Chapter 10 / Options for young stock management 61
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Feeders
A wide range of self-feeders are available for the
feeding of grain, pellets or hay. Alternatively, the
feed in the creep can be fed out in troughs.
Feeding on the ground will result in considerable
wastage.
The best self-feeders are covered and protect the
feed from rain. Self-feeders that have an
adjustment on the opening between the hopper
and the feeding tray also have advantages.
This adjustment enables some control over daily
rates of consumption, which can be particularly
important in the introductory feeding period.
However, be aware these block up regularly and
will need daily scraping to keep the feed flowing.
Figure 10.2: A permanent calf creep is useful
where a concentrate ration is fed to calves. The
trough should be covered to prevent rain
damaging the feed.
The type and level of feed
Deciding which feed to use should be based on
price, availability and convenience. The choices
include oats, barley, wheat, triticale, maize, lupins,
peas, pellets or a combination of some of these.
Pellets are a convenient and flexible concentrate
to feed and are available with a range of protein
levels to suit the particular animals being fed and
the pasture available at the time. Calves have
high protein requirements.
Oats are the safest cereal grain to feed. All other
grains should be coarsely rolled before feeding to
improve their digestibility.
To get the calves used to entering the creep, feed
hay only for the first few days – up to a week if
need be. Make sure all calves are using the creep.
Start feeding concentrates (grain or pellets) at a
level of 250 g/calf/day. When most of the calves
are feeding in the creep, increase the level of
concentrate by 250 g every second or third day.
The upper level of feeding will depend on paddock
conditions and the weight of the calves but it
should be around 2 kg/calf/day.
Alternatively, cows and calves can be fed small
quantities of grain or pellets in the paddock. In
this way, the mothers will train their calves to eat
the grain. After a couple of weeks the creep
system can be put in place and the cows excluded.
CHAPTER 11
The feed value of
unusual feedstuffs
Agriculture Victoria
62 Chapter 11 / The feed value of unusual feedstuffs
During droughts, it is common to look for feed
sources other than hay, silage and grains as feed
prices increase. This chapter looks at the energy
and protein value of some alternative feeds and
issues to consider before purchase and feeding.
Key messages
• Unusualfeedstuffscanposeahigherriskof
chemical residues and contaminates.
• Ensureafeedanalysisisprovidedforthefeed
that is being considered for purchase as
qualitycanbequitevariable.
A wide range of unusual feedstuffs can be fed to
livestock safely and effectively. However, apart
from them being of poor nutritional value, they
can also contain chemical residues that can
contaminate meat and animal products when
used as livestock feed.
All supplementary feeds may contain chemical
residues, but feedstuffs not normally fed to
livestock pose a much greater risk as the residue
transfers are unlikely to have been assessed. The
same applies to imported feedstuffs, which may
have high feed value to stock but an unknown
chemical use history.
Agricultural chemicals used on fruit and vegetable
crops are typically designed to be eliminated from
the edible parts of the plant at harvesting, however
some residues may still be present. In some cases
they may be concentrated in the waste plant
material after processing. Feeding this waste
plant material to stock may cause problems.
Residue problems can also emerge because stock
have the capacity to eat a greater quantity of the
fruit/vegetable than humans.
Agricultural chemicals are not designed to be
ingested by livestock. Unless animal residue
studies have been conducted, little is known about
the effect of these chemicals on stock and their
persistence in animal tissue.
There is a very real possibility that the meat and
animal products from stock fed unusual feedstuffs
containing chemical contaminants will themselves
become contaminated with the chemicals. This
can have a severe impact on trade and market
access as well as animal and human health.
The best policy is to not feed unusual feedstuffs to
stock without first establishing the material is
suitable.
Producers should ask the supplier of unusual
feedstuffs to certify the material they are
supplying is suitable for the purpose for which it
will be used. Ask for a by-product vendor
declaration to verify this information. This will
allow you to see the full chemical-use history of
the potential feed.
Tests for chemical contamination by an
accredited testing laboratory may not provide a
satisfactory guarantee of suitability because
analytical tests typically only screen for a narrow
range of chemicals. The chemical content of
unusual feedstuffs may vary from batch to batch.
The composition of many feedstuffs varies widely
because of differences in climate, soil conditions,
maturity, variety, management and processing.
The data in this chapter is a guide rather than a
precise statement of nutrient composition.
Before finalising plans to feed any by-product or
unusual feedstuff to livestock, it is advisable to
have a sample analysed by an accredited feed
analysis service. See Chapter 5 for further details.
Most by-products and unusual feedstuffs should
be used with caution and introduced into rations
gradually, even when low prices favour their use.
Factors to consider about unusual feedstuffs are
their nutritive value, palatability, possible toxicity
or contamination with pesticides or heavy metals,
and the effects upon digestion and utilisation of
the total ration. The use of by-product stockfeed
needs to be declared when completing National
Vendor Declaration (NVD) forms.
SAFEMEAT, a partnership between the red meat
and livestock industries and Commonwealth and
State Governments has conducted risk
assessments on the use of unusual feedstuffs.
Producers can obtain copies of these risk
assessments from the SAFEMEAT website at
safemeat.com.au/key-issues/chemical-residues.
htm
Chapter 11 / The feed value of unusual feedstuffs 63
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
High moisture content feeds
Stock can eat up to 3.5% of their liveweight per
day when the feed is in a dry form, such as hay or
grain, but they cannot eat as much dry matter if
the feed has a high moisture content.
Fresh, high-moisture feeds are often quite
palatable to livestock but most such feeds will
ferment and sour quickly unless they are dried or
ensiled.
Blending and levels of feeding
It is important that any new feedstuff is gradually
introduced to livestock over a period of about two
weeks.
As a rule of thumb, most unusual feedstuffs can
be effectively incorporated into the rations of
livestock to a maximum of about 30% of the total
ration without any significant influence on the
health of livestock.
Types of feeds
Stock feed is usually categorised as either
concentrates (high in energy) or roughage (higher
in fibre but lower in energy).
Concentrates can be high in either energy or
protein content. Protein concentrates generally
contain more than 20% crude protein.
By-product energy concentrates
Almond hulls
Almond hull products vary considerably due to
varietal differences and harvesting procedures.
Soft almond hulls have about 85% of the energy
value of barley grain. Some supplies of almond
hulls are contaminated with sticks, dirt, hard shells
and other foreign materials at harvest time. This
greatly reduces their feeding value and
acceptability by livestock.
Almond hulls can be used as a partial roughage
replacement when roughage supplies are short
and forage prices are high.
When mixed with other ingredients in commercial
concentrate mixes, almond hulls usually are
restricted to 20% or less in order to maintain high
nutrient levels and palatability of the concentrate
mix. In complete feedlot rations, almond hulls are
limited to about 30% or less.
Apple pomace
Apple pomace is the by-product of apples used
for cider or vinegar production. It can be fed fresh,
ensiled or dried.
Two problems have hampered feeding of apple
pomace in recent years. Pesticide contamination
has been a problem in some areas, making the
pomace unacceptable in dairy and (occasionally)
sheep and beef rations. A second difficulty is that
urea or other non-protein nitrogen compounds
should not be fed with apple pomace because of
the possibility of abortions and/or abnormalities
of offspring. The reason for this is unknown.
Apple pomace is a highly palatable feed, medium
in energy but very low in protein. When properly
supplemented, it can replace up to about one-third
of the concentrates in rations and 15-20% in
complete feedlot rations.
Bakery waste
Large amounts of unsold bread, doughnuts, cakes
and other pastries are available in some areas
and are excellent energy sources for ruminant
rations. Bakery waste may contain meat or other
animal protein and should be used with caution
and in accordance with ruminant feed ban
legislation. The feeding of any meat product to
ruminants (including cattle and sheep) is
prohibited in Australia
Bakery waste is usually high in fat and low in
crude fibre. Protein levels (on a dry-matter basis)
of 10-12% are typical. The low fibre content of the
baked material and the baking process itself
result in a feed that tends to stimulate ruminal
propionate and reduce ruminal acetate
production. This is desirable for feedlot livestock
being fattened for market.
Up to about 10% can be included in feedlot rations
when supplies and economics are favourable.
Supplies should be used quickly while still fresh.
Brewer’s grains
Brewer’s grains have 20-25% crude protein (on a
dry matter basis), making them a good protein
source in addition to their energy value.
The brewing process makes this protein less
soluble than many protein supplements. This
could be valuable in rations, such as silage
supplement with non-protein nitrogen that
contain large amounts of soluble protein.
Brewer’s grains are fed both wet and dried.
In the dry form they have about 80% of the energy
value of barley grain (the energy value varies
depending on the brewery and additives used in
the brewing process). They are not as palatable in
the dried form as the original grain and are
usually included as 25% or less of a dairy
concentrate mix and 1-20% in feedlot rations.
Citrus pulp
Citrus pulp is classified as a concentrate but is
also valuable as a partial roughage replacement
because of its high level of digestible fibre.
It commonly contains about 15% crude fibre in the
dry matter. Its energy value is about 94% of the
value of barley grain. It has only about 7% crude
protein in the dry matter.
64 Chapter 11 / The feed value of unusual feedstuffs
Agriculture Victoria
Citrus pulp is usually fed dehydrated. It must be
introduced gradually into a ration to let stock get
accustomed to its distinctive smell and taste.
Levels of up to 15-20% are acceptable in feedlot
rations.
Citrus pulp can also be fed fresh or as silage. Both
are very acceptable to stock but pulp and peels
from lemons are somewhat more acceptable than
those from oranges and grapefruit. Transportation
costs preclude the wet pulp being fed very far
from processing plants.
Citrus pulp is high in calcium and low in
phosphorus, and can aggravate the high calcium-
to-phosphorus ratio in a ration when fed with
legumes such as lucerne. Unless counter- balanced
by other feeds low in calcium and high in phosphorus,
citrus pulp can result in higher incidences of milk
fever in cattle at, or soon after, parturition.
Fat
Fats and oils have energy values of about 2¼ times
that of carbohydrates. Fats are also used to settle
the dust and as a lubricant for feed processing.
Levels of 2-5% fat are acceptable in commercial
feedlot rations. Care must be taken, however, to
ensure the fats and oils are not contaminated with
extraneous chemicals during collection, storage
and use. Tallow and used cooking oil may only be
used in accordance with Ruminant Feed Ban
Regulations.
Grain screenings
Grain screenings result from the cleaning of small
grains before they are milled for human
consumption. The best grade of screenings
consists primarily of broken and shrunken kernels
of grain, wild oats and other palatable weed seeds.
When ground, good screenings approach grain in
feeding value and have been used as 25% or more
of concentrate mixed and 15-20% in feed rations.
Light, chaffy screenings are much higher in fibre
and resemble straw more than grain in feeding
value. Such screenings should be restricted to 10%.
Grape pomace or marc
Grape pomace or marc is the refuse in the
production of grape juice and wine. It consists
mainly of some combination of grape seeds,
stems and skins. It has little feeding value, being
very variable in both energy and protein and
highly variable in dry matter.
When included in a concentrate mix, it can be
considered only as a filler to reduce the price of
the mix. With new harvesting and winery
techniques, grape pomace containing few or no
stems can be produced. This waste feed has been
fed successfully at up to 15-20% of complete
feedlot rations.
Grape marc has been found to be extremely
palatable to sheep and lambs in pen trials where
they consumed 350 g/head/day when fed with
straw. This diet was effective in reducing weight
loss only.
Studies have found partitioning of oil-soluble
chemicals in grape seeds at violative levels, which
would readily transfer to animal fat upon ingestion.
There are also concerns about residual levels of
copper, which can be toxic to stock, from
fungicides used on grapes.
Onions
Onions have been fed successfully to cattle and
sheep and they eat them readily. They can,
however, cause anaemia in sheep so introducing
onions over a period of time is recommended and
only up to 50% of the total ration.
Rice bran
Rice bran results from the processing of rice grain
for human consumption. Besides the bran itself, it
contains the germ from the grain and fragments
of the hull not removed in milling.
Levels of up to 15% have been fed successfully to
livestock. At these levels, it is roughly equivalent to
wheat bran in nutritional value.
Wheat bran and other wheat by-products
Wheat bran consists of the coarse outer coatings
of wheat kernels. It is a bulky feed that is relatively
high in protein and phosphorus. It is highly
palatable to livestock and is utilised efficiently
when up to 25% is included in the concentrate mix.
From 10% to 20% of wheat bran and other wheat
by-products can be used in feedlot diets. The
bulky nature of wheat bran and its high phosphorus
content make it a popular by-product feed for
livestock.
Whey
Whey is the residue from cheese production and
consists primarily of lactose, minerals and water. It
can be fed dry or liquid. Pollution control
regulations and the high cost of drying have
resulted in increasing amounts being used as feed
liquid in recent years.
Dried whey is a major component of many dry
milk replacers fed to calves. It is usually too
expensive to be included in rations for older
animals but it is sometimes included at low levels
in pelleted feeds because of its binding
characteristics as well as its nutrients.
Liquid whey contains only 6-7% solids and must be
fed quickly or it will spoil. In cool climates it can be
stored for 3-4 days before feeding. In warm climates
it should be fed the same day it is delivered.
Chapter 11 / The feed value of unusual feedstuffs 65
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Liquid whey is frequently available for only the
hauling costs, making it an inexpensive source of
nutrients for animals near cheese plants. Supplies
are often variable, however, and storage of whey
attracts fly problems.
Tomato pomace
The feeding value of tomato pomace on a dry
basis is comparable to good-quality hay.
Variability (especially moisture content) is one of
the main problems associated with the use of this
by-product feed. In one study, dry matter varied
from a high of 27.5% to a low of 11.9%. Pesticide
contamination can also be a problem with tomato
pomace.
By-product protein concentrates
Many crops grown for oil production also produce
by-products high in protein. These by-products
are the primary source of supplemental protein in
livestock rations.
They include coconut meal, corn gluten meal,
cottonseed meal, linseed meal, safflower meal,
soybean meal and sunflower meal. Some of these
have high fat levels and should therefore not be
fed as the whole diet.
Additionally, such by-products as distiller’s grains
are used extensively as protein supplements in
livestock rations. Brewer’s grains, previously
discussed as an energy feed, are also relatively
high in protein content.
Coconut meal/copra
Coconut meal, popularly known as copra, is one of
the most palatable feeds available for livestock. It
is high in energy and contains about 20% protein.
Rancidity can be a problem during storage if the
meal is high in fat but high-fat copra contains
considerably more energy than copra produced
by the solvent process.
Cottonseed meal
Cottonseed meal is a by-product of the
production of cotton lint and cottonseed oil. It
contains about 40% protein and is well liked by
livestock. The amount of oil left in the meal will
affect its energy value (amounts vary according to
the method of processing). Energy levels are
somewhat lower than those found in some other
protein supplements, such as coconut meal,
soybean meal and linseed meal.
Linseed meal
Linseed meal, the by-product of the extraction of
linseed oil from flaxseed, is an excellent protein
supplement for livestock. Protein content varies
from about 30% to 38%, depending on the source
of processing method. When reasonably priced, it
can be used as the only protein supplement in
livestock rations because it is very palatable.
Poultry litter and manure
Poultry waste (litter and/or manure) has been
included in the diets of sheep and cattle in
previous droughts but is now prohibited under the
Ruminant Feed Ban.
Rendered products
The Ruminant Feed Ban also bans rendered
products such as blood meal, meat meal, meat and
bone meal, fish meal, poultry meal, feather meal,
and compounded feeds made from these products.
Safflower meal
Safflower meal has increased in availability and
importance as a protein supplement in recent
years because of the popularity of safflower oil in
human diets. Safflower meal from unhulled seeds,
has about 20% protein, is high in fibre and
relatively low in energy. Meal made from well-
hulled seeds has about 40% protein and is much
higher in energy.
Safflower meal from either source, however, is not
as palatable to livestock as the more common
protein supplements and is usually restricted to
20% or less of concentrate mix.
Soybean meal
Soybean meal contains 40-50% protein, is high in
energy and is highly palatable to livestock.
Sunflower meal
Protein levels vary from 20% to 25%, depending on
the processing method and whether the seed is
hulled or not. It is roughly equivalent to cottonseed
meal as a protein supplement for livestock.
By-product roughage
Canola hay and silage
Canola hay and silage are likely to be available as a
fodder source in droughts where frost damage has
occurred. In this situation, it is likely that lengthy
agricultural chemical withholding periods will apply,
up to 15 weeks in some situations (e.g. pre-emergent
uses). Vendor declarations must be sought from feed
suppliers in these situations to manage the risks.
Both hay and silage can be of good quality but
this can vary and there are some livestock
considerations.
Table 11.1 is a summary of results in Victoria on
canola hay and silage samples analysed during
2006-2007.
Canola hay that has not been aggressively
conditioned may have sharp stalk ends and these
can pose a problem by piercing an animal’s
rumen. There have been reported instances of
nitrate poisoning from canola products. It is
recommended that canola hay or silage is
introduced slowly and not fed as a sole ration or
to starving animals.
66 Chapter 11 / The feed value of unusual feedstuffs
Agriculture Victoria
Table 11.1: Mean and range of canola hay and silage samples from the 2006-2007 season
(Source – FEEDTEST® 1 Aug 2006 – 10 Jan 2007).
Description Crude Protein (CP)
(%)
Dry Matter
Digestibility (DMD)
(%)
Metabolisable
Energy (ME)
(MJ ME/kgDM)
Neutral Detergent
Fibre (NDF)
(%)
Hay, canola
(508 samples)
16.2 67.1 9.9 40.6
(4.0–27.2) (33.0–85.3) (4.1–13.1) (25.4–66.9)
Silage, canola
(141 samples)
17.6 66.3 10.1 41.5
(9.7–26.3) (45.6–81.7) (7.3–12.4) (25.6–57.4)
More recent season averages can be sourced from: www.feedtest.com.au
Rice hay
Rice hay is generally a good palatable roughage
of equivalent feed value to cereal hays. Rice hay,
however, is known to contain significant levels of
silica and oxalate, both of which may cause
problems to livestock. High dietary silica levels can
predispose animals, especially steers, to urinary
calculi.
If rice hay is fed as the roughage in a hay and
grain diet, it is suggested that 1.5% limestone and
0.5% salt is fed to correct the calcium: phosphorus
balance in the ration. Rice hay can contain a
range of weeds such as umbrella sedge, barnyard
grass, starfruit and wild millet.
Rice hulls
Rice hulls have practically no feed value but can
be useful as bedding material for livestock. They
are very high in crude fibre and silica and the fibre
is largely indigestible. Up to 15% of unground rice
hulls can be included as a roughage source in
drought rations being fed to livestock.
Sawdust
Sawdust has virtually no feed value for sheep or
cattle because of its high level of lignification. It
has been shown to be useful, however, when
feeding high concentrate diets to sheep or cattle
during droughts. Sheep survival rates in drought
have been shown to be better when 15-20%
sawdust (hoop pine and spotted gum) was
included in the wheat rations.
Sawdust has also been successfully used as a
diluent for adapting cattle to a concentrated diet.
The inclusion of 5-15% sawdust in maize-based
diets for cattle was found to maintain better
rumen function, as evidenced by fewer cases of
bloat and liver lesions and less ruminal
parakeratosis.
Coarse sawdust was better than fine sawdust in
maintaining rumen function.
Sawdust from treated timber should not be used.
Seaweed
Kelp represents the most common type of
seaweed that might be available for feeding. The
dry matter of kelp contains about 30% minerals
(compared to 5-6% in hay, pasture, etc). Kelp
contains 0.15-0.2% iodine. Seaweed is sometimes
used as a mineral source for livestock.
Kelp can be fed quite satisfactorily at up to about
25% of the diet of livestock. The composition of
dried kelp is dry matter 91%, crude protein 6%,
minerals (ash content) 30%. ME value of kelp is
about 5 MJ/kg DM.
The rich mineral content of seaweed, especially
salt, can make the material quite palatable to
livestock.
Waste paper
Waste paper has poor feed value and there is the
risk of the paper containing contaminants such as
lead, cadmium, polychlorinated biphenyls and
other toxic substances. The feeding of waste
paper to cattle is not recommended.
Chapter 11 / The feed value of unusual feedstuffs 67
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Table11.2:Energyandproteincompositionsofunusualfeedstuffs.(Ifknown,rangesinfeedvaluesare
giveninbrackets.Itislikelythatmostofthesefeedstuffswillvaryandvaluesareaguideonly.)
Feed Approx. dry matter (DM)
%
Metabolisable energy
(ME) (MJ ME/kg DM)
Crude protein % dry
matter
Acorns 70 7 5
Almond hulls, 15% CF 90 8 2
Almond hulls and shells,
20% CF
90 7 2
Apple pomace, dried 89 10 5
Apple pulp silage 21 11 8
Apples 17 10 3
Apricots, dried 90 12 6
Bakery waste, dried 92 13 11
Banana skins, dried,
ground
88 9 8
Bananas 24 13 4
Bread, dried 92 13 13
Brewers dried grains 92 9 22
Brewers dried grains,
25% protein
92 10 25
Brewers grains, wet
(range)
28 (14-61) 11 (8-14) 22 (10-29)
Broccoli 11 10 33
Brussel sprouts 15 11 33
Buckwheat 87 11 12
Cabbage 9 13 25
Cabbage leaves 15 10 14
Canola meal (range) 91 12 (10-16) 38 (27-42)
Carrot pulp (range) 10 (8-16) 13 (9-14) 10 (6-15)
Carrots 13 12 10
Cauliflower 9 10 30
Citrus pulp (range) 14 (11-17) 13 (10-15) 9 (6-12)
Copra (coconut) meal 90 11 21
Corn cobs, ground 90 7 3
Cottonseed meal,
41% protein mech-extd
93 3 44
Cottonseed meal,
41% protein, solv-extd
91 11 46
Cottonseed, whole 92 14 23
Grape marc or pomace
(range)
55 (20-94) 6 (2-12) 12 (5-17)
Grape/pear/apple
pomace, dried
92 6 7
Grapefruit 14 13 8
68 Chapter 11 / The feed value of unusual feedstuffs
Agriculture Victoria
Table 11.2: Energy and protein compositions of unusual feedstuffs. (continued)
Feed Approx. dry matter (DM)
%
Metabolisable energy
(ME) (MJ ME/kg DM)
Crude protein % dry
matter
Kelp, dried 91 5 7
Lemon pulp, dried 93 12 7
Lettuce 5 8 22
Linseed meal,
36% protein, solv-extd
90 12 38
Linseed meal,
37% protein, mech-extd
91 12 38
Melons 4 11 11
Milk, cattle, skim, dried 94 13 36
Milk, cattle, whole, dried 94 15 27
Milk, colostrum 25 15 46
Molasses, cane 75 11 6
Oat hulls 93 5 4
Oat straw 92 7 4
Oats, sprouted 5 days 13 10 18
Onions 11 13 10
Orange pulp, dried 88 12 8
Orange pulp, wet 25 12 9
Oranges 13 12 7
Palm kernel meal 88 11 17
Pea hay 88 9 14
Peaches 10 12 9
Peanut meal, mech-extd 93 12 52
Peanut meal, solv-extd 92 12 52
Peanut skins 94 10 17
Pears 17 13 6
Pineapples 15 12 3
Potato meal, dried 91 12 11
Potatoes 23 12 9
Pumpkins 9 13 16
Raisin pulp, dried 89 8 11
Raisins, cull 85 7 4
Rice bran 90 14 (9-15) 16 (13-20)
Soyabean meal 85 (12-94) 15 (13-16) 44 (30-54)
Sunflower meal 91 10 (8-14) 34 (20-39)
Whey 8 (2-27) 14 (12-14) 30 (20-40)
It is important to assess the risk of these feedstuffs and take appropriate precautions to ensure the
quality and integrity of the meat or other end product is not jeopardised.
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Appendices 69
APPENDICES
Appendix I – Weight of hay and silage bales
Bale type Wet weight
(kg)
Dry Matter
(%)
Dry Weight
(kg)
Hay
Small square 23 85 20
4 x 4 round 250 85 215
5 x 4 round (15 small bale equivalents) 350 85 300
5 x 6 round (20 small bale equivalents) 500 85 425
8 x 3 x 3 square 300 85 255
8 x 4 x 3 square 600 85 510
8 x 4 x 4 square 750 85 640
Silage
4 x 4 round 700 35 245
1 cubic metre (wilted) 580 30 175
1 cubic metre (direct cut) 830 18 115
1 cubic metre maize silage 500 35 175
Appendix II – Energy tables and calculations
Calculation for maintenance:
Maintenance MJ ME = (0.1 x liveweight) + 5
Calculationsfordailyenergyrequirementsof
growing cattle:
< 300
kg LW
0.5 kg/day MJ ME = 1.7 x maintenance
1.0 kg/day MJ ME = 2.2 x maintenance
1.5 kg/day MJ ME = 2.7 x maintenance
300 –
500
kgLW
0.5 kg/day MJ ME = 1.6 x maintenance
1.0 kg/day MJ ME = 2.1 x maintenance
1.5 kg/day MJ ME = 2.6 x maintenance
500 +
kgLW
0.5 kg/day MJ ME = 1.5 x maintenance
1.0 kg/day MJ ME = 2.0 x maintenance
1.5 kg/day MJ ME = 2.5 x maintenance
Lookuptablesfordailyenergyrequirementsof
pregnant and lactating cattle:
Requirementsforpregnancy–addto
maintenance of cow
Expected calf birth
weight
(kg)
Weeks before calving
- 12 - 8 - 4 0
MJ ME/cow/day
30 6 11 20 34
40 9 15 26 45
50 11 18 32 55
Requirementsforlactation–addto
maintenance of cow
Normal calf
weaning weight
(kg)
Months after calving
+ 1 + 3 + 5 + 7
MJ ME/cow/day
150 35 45 55 55
200 40 55 65 75
250 50 70 85 95
300 60 80 100 115
Agriculture Victoria
70 Appendices
APPENDICES
Appendix III – Tactical feed budget
Minimum pasture cover (kg DM/ha) (n) Provision from current pasture (kgDM) (o)
o = (b – n) x d
Provision from current pasture (kgDM) (o)
Provision from future growth (kgDM) (m)
Total pasture intake (kgDM) (i)
FEED BALANCE (kgDM) = (o + m) – i
TACTICALFEEDBUDGET
Scenario:
Step 1 – Where are we now?
No. of animals (a) Liveweight (kg) Current FOO
(kg DM/ha) (b)
Pasture quality
(MJ ME/kgDM) (c)
Grazing Area (ha)
(d)
Step 2 – Where do we want to get to?
Time frame (days) (e) Required liveweight gain (kg/day) Energy requirement
(MJ ME/day) (f)
Animal feed requirement
(kgDM/day)
(g) g = f ÷c
Herd pasture intake (kgDM/day)
(h) h = a x g
Total timeframe pasture
intake (kgDM)
(i) i = h x e
Step 3 – How do we get there?
Future Growth
Month Days in month
(j)
Pasture growth rate
(kg DM/ha/day) (k)
Area (ha)
(l)
Total grown/month
(kgDM) = j x k x l
Total Growth (m)
Drought Feeding and Management of Beef Cattle
Appendices 71
APPENDICES
Determine total energy shortage
Energy in pasture*
MJ ME/kgDM
(c)
x
Feed balance
deficit
kgDM
=
Total energy
shortage
MJ ME
DeterminekgDMofsupplementrequired
Total energy
shortage
MJ ME
÷
Energy value of
supplement
MJ ME/kgDM
=
Supplement
required
kgDM
Determine ‘as bought’ amount of supplement
Supplement
required
kgDM
÷
Dry matter % of
supplement
=
‘As Bought’
supplement
required
kg
* This figure comes from box (c) on the Tactical Feed Budget
Convertingpasturedecitintosupplementaryfeedrequirement
Appendix IV – Pearson’s Square worksheet
Protein % in
feed 1
A
Protein % in
feed 2
B
Parts of
feed 2
required in diet
C
Parts of
feed 1
required in diet
D
Required
Protein %
10
Difference in protein between
feed 1 and required protein level
gives the parts of
feed 2 required in the diet
Proportion (%) of feed 1 in diet = (D÷C) Feed 1 =
—
÷
—
=
—
Proportion (%) of feed 2 in diet = (C÷E) Feed 2 =
—
÷
—
=
—
Total parts (E) = C+D
=
—
Appendix III – Tactical feed budget (continued)
Step 4 – Options for achieving feed balance
Agriculture Victoria
72 Appendices
APPENDICES
Appendix IV – Pearson’s Square worksheet (continued)
Amount of energy needed from feed 1
Proportion of
feed 1 in diet
x
Animal
requirements
MJ ME/day
=
Amount of energy
needed from feed 1
MJ ME/day
kgDMrequiredoffeed1
Amount of energy
needed from feed 1
MJ ME/day
÷
Energy value of
feed 1
MJ ME/kgDM
=
Amount required
of feed 1
kgDM
Amountoffeedrequiredonanasfedbasis(feed1)
Amount required
of feed 1
kgDM
÷
Dry matter of
feed 1
(expressed as a
decimal, i.e. 90%
= 0.9)
=
Kg as fed per head
per day of feed 1
Amount of energy needed from feed 2
Proportion of
feed 2 in diet
x
Animal
requirements
MJ ME/day
=
Amount of energy
needed from
feed 2
MJ ME/day
kgDMrequiredoffeed2
Amount of energy
needed from
feed 2
MJ ME/day
÷
Energy value of
feed 2
MJ ME/kgDM
=
Amount required
of feed 2
kgDM
Amountoffeedrequiredonanasfedbasis(feed2)
Amount required
of feed 2
kgDM
÷
Dry matter of
feed 2
(expressed as a
decimal, i.e. 85%
= 0.85)
=
Kg as fed per head
per day of feed 2