Florida Alternative Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan

NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

Technical Report

NREL/TP-5400-83795

December 2022

Florida Alternative Transportation Fuel

Resilience Plan

Caley Johnson

Jeff Cappellucci,

Lauren Spath Luhring,

Maria St. Louis

-Sanchez,

Fan Yang,

Abby Brown,

Austin Sipiora,

Alexander Kolpakov,

Xiaopeng Li,

Qianwen Li,

Sean White,

John Gonzales,

Erin Nobler,

and Eric Wood

1 National Renewable Energy Laboratory

2 University of South Florida

, Center for Urban Transportation

Research

3 Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services

NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

15013 Denver West Parkway

Golden, CO 80401

303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov

Technical Report

NREL/TP-5400-83795

December 2022

Florida Alternative Transportation Fuel

Resilience Plan

Caley Johnson,

Jeff Cappellucci,

Lauren Spath Luhring,

Maria St. Louis-Sanchez,

Fan Yang,

Abby Brown,

Austin Sipiora,

Alexander Kolpakov,

Xiaopeng Li,

Qianwen Li,

Sean White,

John Gonzales,

Erin Nobler,

and Eric Wood

1 National Renewable Energy Laboratory

2 University of South Florida, Center for Urban Transportation

Research

3 Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services

Suggested Citation

Johnson, Caley, Jeff Cappellucci, Lauren Spath Luhring, Maria St. Louis-Sanchez, Fan

Yang, Abby Brown, Austin Sipiora, Alexander Kolpakov, Xiaopeng Li, Qianwen Li, Sean

White, John Gonzales, Erin Nobler, and Eric Wood. 2022. Florida Alternative

Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy

Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-83795. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy23osti/83795.pdf

NOTICE

This work was authored in part by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, operated by Alliance for

Sustainable Energy, LLC, for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under Contract No. DE-AC36-

08GO28308. This material is based upon work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) under the Energy Technology Development Program

“Statewide Alternative Fuel Resiliency Plan” Award Number DE-EE0008880. The principal investigator of

the award is the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government.

Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any

warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness,

or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would

not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service

by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its

endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The

views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States

Government or any agency thereof.

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Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at

www.nrel.gov/publications

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after 1991 and a growing number of pre-1991

documents are available

free via www.OSTI.gov

Cover Photos by Dennis Schroeder: (clockwise, left to right) NREL 51934, NREL 45897, NREL 42160, NREL 45891, NREL 48097,

NREL 46526.

NREL prints on paper that contains recycled content.

iii

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Department of Energy for funding this work. In particular,

they would like to thank Mark Smith and Trev Hall for project oversight. This project was

informed and guided by conversations with many fleet managers, vehicle mechanics, fuel station

operators, emergency response specialists, ChargePoint, the Florida Department of Emergency

Management, Port Tampa Bay, and others. The project would not have been possible without

these experts sharing their insight and data with us and we are very thankful.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

List of Acronyms

AFV alternative fuel vehicle

BCT Broward County Transit

BEB battery-electric bus

BRT bus rapid transit

CNG compressed natural gas

CUTR Center for Urban Transportation Research

DCFC DC fast charger

DEMP Diesel Emissions Mitigation Program

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

EOC emergency operations center

ESF-12 Emergency Support Function 12

EV electric vehicle

EVI-Pro Electric Vehicle Infrastructure – Projection

EVSE electric vehicle supply equipment

FDACS Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services

FDEM Florida Division of Emergency Management

FDOT Florida Department of Transportation

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

GIS geographic information system

iREV Initiative for Resiliency in Energy through Vehicles

JTA Jacksonville Transportation Authority

L1 Level 1

L2 Level 2

LMTV Light Medium Tactical Vehicle

LNG liquefied natural gas

LPG liquefied petroleum gas

MCDA multi-criteria decision analysis

MUSC Medical University of South Carolina

NHTS National Household Travel Survey

NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory

SAIDI System Average Interruption Duration Index

VBFD Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue Department

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Executive Summary

Many counties and cities in Florida are developing resilience plans to help them minimize

damage from hurricanes and accelerate recovery.

An Achilles’ heel of these plans is their

dependence on diesel fuel, which is particularly vulnerable to hurricane-related disruptions

because 90% of petroleum in Florida is imported via maritime tanker (EIA 2014). Fuel

diversification can add to Florida’s transportation resilience because if the supply of one fuel gets

disrupted during a hurricane, there is a good chance that the supplies of other fuels are still

available. As Figure ES-1 shows, the four main transportation fuels in Florida have different

means of distribution. If one means of transport (e.g., marine port) is removed, then other means

(e.g., pipeline, rail, cable) could then be relied upon to deliver transportation fuel. The Florida

Alternative Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan aims to address these factors and create a

strategy for how three alternative fuels (natural gas, propane, and electricity) can best be

employed to improve transportation resilience in Florida. It does this through a combination of

literature review and stakeholder engagement for best practices, vehicle technology

recommendations, the creation of three tools (with descriptions and brief guides included), and

charting how stakeholders coordinate to overcome these hurdles.

Figure ES-1. Origin, processing, and distribution of four transportation fuels in Florida.

Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

In Florida, various stakeholders share responsibility for emergency preparedness and resilience,

and actions and decisions are made at multiple levels, including government, the private sector,

and communities. These stakeholders receive direction from the State of Florida Comprehensive

Emergency Management Plan (CEMP), which is administered by the Florida Division of

County and city resilience resources and plans listed in the Florida Resilience Tool, https://widgets-stage.tada-

stage.nrel.gov/tada/fl-resiliency/.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Emergency Management (FDEM). Stakeholders convened via webinar at the beginning of this

project and revisited numerous times so their wide variety of perspectives could help inform the

plan. Fleet partners helped develop a list of best practices for fleets, including vehicle

recommendations, fueling prioritization strategies, redundancies in fuel supply networks, and

fuel tanker logistics. Site visits also provided input that was incorporated into the plan. None of

the visited alternative fuel fleets experienced interruptions in fuel supply to their alternative fuel

vehicles (AFVs) during recent hurricanes (in the past ~7 years), even when diesel and gasoline

supplies were interrupted due to port closures. Fleets increased the resilience of their natural gas

and propane supplies by using mobile fueling units.

The supply chain of alternative fuels, as shown in Figure ES-1, is diverse in Florida. Natural gas

comes via four interstate pipelines. Propane is a byproduct of both natural gas and petroleum

processing facilities and is imported to the state via rail. Electricity in Florida is generated largely

from natural gas (with fuel oil as backup), two nuclear power plants, coal, solar, and biofuels.

Alternative fuels are then sold to vehicles through 28 electricity, 15 natural gas, 11 propane, 10

biofuel, and 3 hydrogen vendors.

Hurricanes can limit communication by knocking out cellphone towers and other

communications infrastructure while simultaneously increasing the need for fleet and vehicle

communications to facilitate evacuation and recovery operations. Surveyed fleets reported

communicating via radio, cellphones, and landlines during disaster situations. However, some of

the fleets that could be most beneficial during evacuation, such as propane school buses or

natural gas-fueled power line repair vehicles, are prioritized below first responders and might not

have access to their radio channels. Electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) normally

communicates with drivers through its network and mobile applications. EVSE is built to

withstand 18 inches of standing water (per the National Electrical Code), but if this threshold is

surpassed and the hardware is damaged, it cannot be brought back online until a technician

physically inspects it. ChargePoint (the largest EVSE network company in Florida) has mobile

fast chargers on skids/trucks with 4 feet of clearance that can be moved to strategic locations and

connected quickly to the grid.

To facilitate the use of alternative fuels before and during a hurricane, the National Renewable

Energy Laboratory (NREL) developed a Florida Resiliency Tool website to help facilitate

planning and communications. Available at https://widgets-stage.tada-stage.nrel.gov/tada/fl-

resiliency/, this website uses state-of-the-art technologies to provide useful maps, information,

connections, and other resources. A second tool developed as part of this plan is an electric

vehicle evacuation planning prototype web tool to prepare the state for using electric vehicles

(EVs) before and during an emergency event. This tool, developed by the University of South

Florida (USF), uses a novel algorithm to coordinate reservations for EVs to charge along

evacuation routes.

Resilience should be considered when planning and building out the nascent EVSE network in

Florida. Therefore, NREL projected the number of EVs in each Florida county in 2030 and 2050

and used the Electric Vehicle Infrastructure – Projection (EVI-Pro) tool to estimate how much

public EVSE will be needed to charge those vehicles. Florida is estimated to have 74,000 EVs in

2030, with 17% of them being plug-in hybrid EVs and 83% battery-electric vehicles. These EVs

will need 45,485 nonresidential EVSE chargers by 2030. To be specific, 54% are workplace

vii

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Level 2 chargers, 34% are public Level 2 chargers, and 12% are fast chargers. By 2030, Broward

County will have the most significant need for EVSE, whereas Lafayette County will require the

least EVSE.

NREL also developed a geographic information system (GIS) model for two purposes: (1) to

identify potential locations for new AFV stations to increase the connectivity of the road network

for AFVs evacuating or performing emergency response duties, and (2) to address future needs

for EVSE by comparing counts of current EVSE ports against future EVSE needs forecast by

EVI-Pro. This analysis considered flood zones, emergency shelters, evacuation routes, AFV

refueling infrastructure, garage locations of AFV fleets, and the EV and EVSE projections from

EVI-Pro. After removing stations that are at risk of flooding, the percentage of evacuation routes

covered by each AFV service area averaged 87.6%. However, after integrating proposed new

stations at emergency shelters, the coverage increased to an average of 99.0%. The tool was also

used to track progress toward meeting the required number of DC fast-charging ports in 2030.

Several of the more populated counties need more than 200 stations to meet their goals, and

other counties were already at or near their 2030 targets. The GIS-based Alternative Fuel

Resilience tool was made available to planners and analysts at

https://nrel.maps.arcgis.com/apps/mapviewer/index.html?webmap=70d980d59f39453387d8286f

cb505ae1, and a case study was developed for instruction using the tool. Finally, the

methodologies and findings of this analysis were compared to relevant portions of the Florida

Electric Vehicle Roadmap (Burk et al. 2020) and the EV Infrastructure Master Plan (FDOT

2021).

This plan must interact with other aspects of resilience planning in Florida, so relevant laws,

regulations, and organizations were described. The state’s 10 regional planning councils and the

Florida Division of Emergency Management were identified as particularly important to work

with.

A vehicle’s ability to drive through standing water can be crucial during a hurricane, so NREL

and USF conducted a literature review and held multiple interviews on this topic. Fleet managers

should try to purchase vehicles with high air intake or modify the air intake system to raise the

height. Fleet managers must ensure that electrical components are water-resistant or move them

to higher locations on the vehicle. It is also important to remotely mount vent tubes to the

transmission and differential at the highest points possible. Vehicle buoyancy is a key

consideration, and liftoff occurs later (deeper) in vehicles with higher clearance, greater mass,

smaller footprint, and better tire traction. Vehicles powered by propane or natural gas have

completely sealed fuel systems, reducing the likelihood of water infiltration. EVs do not need

oxygen to operate, and key components are often waterproofed (Evarts 2018). This has enabled

the EV company Rivian to claim in the specifications of their R1S and R1T that these vehicles

can drive through 43 inches of standing water.

Likewise, DD DANNAR claims that its electric

off-road work vehicles can operate in up to 4 feet of water.

However, 11 EVs from other

manufacturers auto-ignited after Hurricane Ian (Weise 2022), accelerating research into the

impact that extended periods of saltwater submersion has on EVs.

https://rivian.com/support/article/what-is-the-water-fording-height

https://www.dannar.us.com/

viii

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1

2 Background ........................................................................................................................................... 3

3 Stakeholders and Involvement ............................................................................................................ 4

Fuel Resilience Stakeholders .................................................................................................................. 4

Stakeholder Kickoff Meeting ................................................................................................................. 6

Fuel Resilience Best Practices for Fleets ................................................................................................ 6

Site Visits ............................................................................................................................................... 8

4 Supply Chain of Natural Gas, Propane, and Electricity in Florida .................................................. 9

Upstream Sources of Alternative Fuels .................................................................................................. 9

Alternative Fuel Vendors ..................................................................................................................... 11

5 Communications Practices and Protocols ...................................................................................... 13

Current Status and Shortcomings of Communications During Hurricanes .......................................... 13

Solution 1: New Website to Facilitate Planning ................................................................................... 15

Solution 2: EVSE Communications Algorithms and Web Tool .......................................................... 18

6 Long-Term Planning for Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Expansion ............................................. 24

Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Projections Method Overview ............................................................ 24

Vehicle and Infrastructure Attribute Assumptions ............................................................................... 25

Florida County-Level Travel Demand Assumptions ............................................................................ 26

EVI-Pro Simulation Analysis and Results ........................................................................................... 27

7 GIS-Based Preparation for Hurricanes ............................................................................................. 34

Utilizing Current Infrastructure Data ................................................................................................... 35

Future Infrastructure Identification Methods ....................................................................................... 37

Key Findings of GIS Analysis .............................................................................................................. 40

Florida Alternative Fuel Resilience Web Map Local Usage Example ................................................. 44

Comparison to Florida’s EV Roadmap and EV Master Plan ............................................................... 47

GIS Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 48

8 Laws, Regulations and Organizations Relevant to Resilience Planning ...................................... 49

Relevant Laws and Regulations ........................................................................................................... 49

gional Planning Councils ................................................................................................................. 49

Resilient Florida ................................................................................................................................... 50

Functions of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services ..................................... 50

9 Vehicles in Standing Water ............................................................................................................... 51

Important Components of High-Water-Capable Vehicles ................................................................... 51

Electric Vehicles and Flooding ............................................................................................................ 53

High-Water Fleet Experiences ............................................................................................................. 53

High-Water Vehicle Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................... 55

10 Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................................... 56

References ................................................................................................................................................. 57

Appendix A. SAIDI Zone Data Provided to NREL .................................................................................. 62

Appendix B. Site Visit Summaries .......................................................................................................... 63

Waste Pro Facility and CNG Fueling Site ............................................................................................ 63

Seminole County Schools..................................................................................................................... 66

City Furniture ....................................................................................................................................... 68

Broward County Transit – Paratransit Division ................................................................................... 72

Jacksonville Transportation Authority ................................................................................................. 76

Appendix C. Alternative Fuel Vendors .................................................................................................... 82

Appendix D. MCDA Algorithm for Potential New Fuel Station Identification ..................................... 88

Appendix E. Workflow for Future EVSE Needs Mapping ...................................................................... 89

Appendix F: Literature Review for Vehicles in Standing Water ........................................................... 90

Background and Purpose ...................................................................................................................... 90

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Vehicle Water Damage......................................................................................................................... 90

Preventing Water Damage........................................................................................................... 90

Common Vehicle Damage and How To Assess and Repair It .................................................... 91

Assessing and Repairing Common Damage ............................................................................... 91

Engine and Transmission ............................................................................................................ 92

Electrical Components ................................................................................................................ 93

Interior Considerations ................................................................................................................ 93

Case Study: Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue ....................................................................................... 93

Equipment Used and Damage Found .......................................................................................... 94

Potential Vehicle Modifications To Avoid Damage ................................................................... 94

Driver Training ............................................................................................................................ 95

Results 95

Preparing Fleets for Hurricanes and Flooding ...................................................................................... 95

Emergency Operating Plans ........................................................................................................ 96

Vehicle Planning and Repositioning ........................................................................................... 97

Driver Training ............................................................................................................................ 98

Other Considerations ................................................................................................................... 98

Preferred Vehicles for Driving Through Floodwaters .......................................................................... 98

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 98

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List of Figures

Figure ES-1. Origin, processing, and distribution of four transportation fuels in Florida. ........................... v

Figure 1. Origin, processing, and distribution of four transportation fuels in Florida. ................................. 2

Figure 2. Categories of fuel resilience stakeholders ..................................................................................... 5

Figure 3. Alternative Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan design and implementation model .................... 6

Figure 4. Florida’s Four Interstate Natural Gas Pipelines ........................................................................... 10

Figure 5. Florida Resilience Tool homepage .............................................................................................. 15

Figure 6. County-specific resources appear when a county is selected. ..................................................... 16

Figure 7. Florida Resilience Tool map layers ............................................................................................. 17

Figure 8. Accessing fuel-specific station location by county ..................................................................... 17

Figure 9. Station-specific information provides detail ................................................................................ 18

Figure 10. Detailed emergency GIS information accessible in the Florida Resilience Tool ...................... 18

Figure 11. EV Evacuation Tool homepage ................................................................................................. 20

Figure 12. Signup and login to the EV Evacuation Tool ............................................................................ 20

Figure 13. Evacuation reservation in the EV Evacuation Tool ................................................................... 21

Figure 14. Back-end evacuation planning algorithm structure ................................................................... 22

Figure 15. Evacuation route ........................................................................................................................ 23

Figure 16. EVI-Pro model structure and data flow ..................................................................................... 25

Figure 17. Florida county-level population density and EV fleets ............................................................. 27

Figure 18. EV charging load profiles in 2030, n = 80,000 ......................................................................... 28

Figure 19. Comparison of 2030 and 2050 EV charging infrastructure ....................................................... 32

Figure 20. Summary of the two geospatial Florida AFV flood resilience analyses .................................... 34

Figure 21. FHWA alternative fuel corridor requirements. .......................................................................... 35

Figure 22. Florida flood risk, emergency shelters, and evacuation routes. ................................................. 36

Figure 23. Level 2 EVSE and related 50-mile radius EV service map ....................................................... 38

Figure 24. Propane vehicle vulnerability map ............................................................................................ 39

Figure 25. Best new CNG station locations identified by the analysis ....................................................... 41

Figure 26. Number of DCFC Ports Required to Meet 2030 Goals ............................................................. 42

Figure 27. Resilience web map features while planning EV resilience in Dixie County ........................... 45

Figure 28. Example of the ability to add new data to the resilience web map ............................................ 46

Figure 29. Example use case after adding gasoline station data to the resilience web map ....................... 47

Figure 30. Medium-duty vehicle and its points of vulnerability to standing water. ................................... 53

gure B-1. Gauge above 400 psi at WastePro. .......................................................................................... 64

Figure B-2. Natural gas line service inlet at 100 psi. .................................................................................. 65

Figure B-3. 400-kW genset at Seminole County Schools. .......................................................................... 67

Figure B-4. Diesel storage at Seminole County Schools (2,877 gallons). .................................................. 67

Figure B-5. CNG fleet using time-fill. ........................................................................................................ 69

Figure B-6. City Furniture electric Kalmar Ottawa yard truck. .................................................................. 70

Figure B-7. City Furniture CNG station. .................................................................................................... 71

Figure B-8. City Furniture CNG delivery fleet. .......................................................................................... 72

Figure B-9. BCT paratransit bus fueling with propane. .............................................................................. 73

Figure B-10. BCT propane paratransit buses. ............................................................................................. 74

Figure B-11. BCT propane fueling facility. ................................................................................................ 75

Figure B-12. JTA battery-electric bus. ........................................................................................................ 77

Figure B-13. JTA CNG fueling station. ...................................................................................................... 78

Figure B-14. JTA on-site diesel fuel storage. ............................................................................................. 78

Figure B-15. Electric bus charging station installation. .............................................................................. 79

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List of Tables

Table 1. Alternative Fuel Vendors in the State of Florida .......................................................................... 11

Table 2. EV Charging Infrastructure Technology Specifications ............................................................... 26

Table 3. 2030 EV Nonresidential Charging Infrastructure Projection ........................................................ 28

Table 4. 2050 EV Nonresidential Charging Infrastructure Projection ........................................................ 30

Table 5. AFV Corridor Coverage Change With Proposed New Stations ................................................... 40

Table 6. Current and Modeled DCFC Port Counts by Florida County ....................................................... 42

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1 Introduction

Hurricanes are increasing in frequency, intensity, and duration and are projected to continue

increasing (Knutson 2022; Kossin 2018). Many counties and cities in Florida are developing

resilience plans to help them minimize damage from hurricanes and accelerate recovery.

The

transportation portions of these plans tend to focus on bolstering road infrastructure, stockpiling

diesel for strategic fleets, purchasing high-water vehicles, and placing evacuation shelters in safe

areas. An Achilles’ heel of these plans is their dependence on diesel fuel, which is particularly

vulnerable to hurricane-related disruptions because 90% of petroleum in Florida needs to be

imported via maritime tanker (EIA 2014). These tankers are restricted from accessing Florida

ports before and during hurricanes because the risks of damage to the port facilities and tanker

are too high. Therefore, transportation resilience can be fortified by diversifying the

transportation fuels utilized in a hurricane.

Fuel diversification can add to the transportation resilience of Florida because if the supply of

one fuel gets disrupted during a hurricane, there is a good chance that the supplies of other fuels

have not. As Figure 1 shows, the four main transportation fuels in Florida have very different

means of distribution, and if one means (e.g., marine port) is removed, then other means (e.g.,

pipeline, rail, cable) could then be relied upon to deliver transportation fuel.

Fuel diversification is complicated by a few factors. First, there must be vehicles available that

can use an alternative fuel, be useful for hurricane evacuation or recovery purposes, and also be

useful outside of hurricane operations. These vehicles are discussed in Section 4. Second,

alternative fuels have fewer and less standardized refueling stations, so fleets must be able to

communicate with the stations to know their operating status and compatibility with their

vehicles (Section 5), and new stations need to be added strategically (Sections 6 and 7). Third,

alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) and conventional vehicles need to be assessed for their

capabilities in driving through standing water, which would likely be required during hurricane

recovery operations (Section 9). The Florida Alternative Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan

aims to address these factors and create a plan for how alternative fuels can best be used to

improve transportation resilience in Florida. It does this through a combination of literature

review and stakeholder engagement for best practices, vehicle technology recommendations, the

creation of three tools (with descriptions and brief guides included), and charting how

stakeholders coordinate to best overcome these hurdles.

County and city resilience resources and plans listed in the Florida Resilience Tool, https://widgets-stage.tada-

stage.nrel.gov/tada/fl-resiliency/.

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Figure 1. Origin, processing, and distribution of four transportation fuels in Florida.

Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

This plan follows a framework used for numerous supplies during natural disasters, including

water, food, and medical supplies. The first step is to add redundancy to the supply. This is done

through fuel diversification, as mentioned previously and discussed throughout the majority of

this report. The second step is to have adequate storage. State and local resilience plans address

this for petroleum used by essential fleets, and this plan addresses this for alternative fuels. The

third step is to ensure access to supplies. This plan does this for alternative fuels through a

geographic information system (GIS) analysis that estimates which fueling locations are likely to

remain accessible and by setting up a communication system so alternative fuel fleets can ensure

that a station can accommodate them during a hurricane. It goes further for electric vehicles

(EVs), where a reservation system and coordinating algorithms is proposed to coordinate the

charging of numerous evacuating EVs. The fourth step is to resupply as quickly as possible; the

plan discusses the rates at which various fuels are likely to be resupplied after a hurricane. The

fifth step is to improve the efficiency with which a given amount of fuel is used, so that a

maximum amount of transportation services might be rendered per a given amount of fuel. The

plan discusses the relative efficiency of evacuation and emergency vehicles and compares

efficiency between fuels.

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2 Background

State departments of transportation have a long history of supporting transportation resilience,

but they are mainly focused on infrastructure rather than fuel supplies.

Likewise, local resilience

planning agencies have a history of focusing on transportation infrastructure and storing diesel

reserves for strategic yet conventional vehicles. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) assessed

the resilience of various fuels in their seminal 2014 three-part report United States Fuel

Resilience: U.S. Fuels Supply Infrastructure (DOE 2014). These reports set a useful definition of

resilience as “the ability to withstand small to moderate disturbances without loss of service, to

maintain minimum service during severe disturbances, and to quickly return to normal service

after a disturbance.” This is the definition that we use in this plan. The DOE report highlighted

numerous chokepoints in the petroleum supply, transportation, storage, and distribution

infrastructure and the relative resilience of the natural gas and propane infrastructure. In doing

so, they discussed the relative fragility of the electric grid (largely due to lack of storage

capacity), but their focus was on the interactions between the electric grid and the supply of other

fuels rather than electricity as an end-use fuel. For example, electricity is needed to pump diesel

out of underground storage tanks or to compress natural gas. In general, the focus of the 2014

report was upstream of the fuel dispensers and vehicles.

The first initiative to assess and utilize alternative fuels to improve transportation resilience was

the Initiative for Resiliency in Energy through Vehicles (iREV) program. This was a joint project

with DOE’s Clean Cities program and the National Association of State Energy Officials

(NASEO). iREV began by documenting the role of natural gas minibuses helping New Jersey

recover from Hurricane Sandy when diesel was in short supply.

Throughout 2015 and 2016,

iREV published a series of case studies of using alternative fuels in emergency response

vehicles.

In 2017, a GIS-based iREV-Tracking tool was created to help coordinate alternative

fuel stations and national-level critical infrastructure when planning for emergencies.

In addition to iREV case studies, the utilization of alternative fuels during natural disasters has

also been documented. During Japan’s 2011 tsunami, oil refineries were destroyed but electricity

was still available in some areas. Therefore, EVs were an asset in transporting small items like

medicines and transporting doctors and building inspectors so that buildings could be safely

reopened (Belson 2011). This event inspired Nissan’s “Leaf to Home” power exporter. Wildfires

in California proved another value for EVs when the Pacific Gas and Electric Company began

using their Class 5 plug-in hybrid electric vehicle utility trucks with exportable power modules to

provide power to evacuation shelters (Morris 2015). Compressed natural gas (CNG) was

documented fueling buses in the face of diesel shortages during Hurricane Sandy (Atlantic City

)

and Hurricane Harvey (Houston

). Propane-fueled school buses transported medical personnel

to hospitals during Hurricane Sandy (New York) and evacuated residents of Tampa during

As reflected by the agendas of the Transportation Research Board’s Transportation Resilience Innovations Summit

and Exchange annual meetings, www.trb.org.

https://www.naseo.org/irev

https://irev.ctc.com/Account/Login

https://afdc.energy.gov/case/1323

https://afdc.energy.gov/case/3078

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Hurricane Irma (Thompson 2017). These disasters were the proving grounds for the potential of

alternative fuels during natural disasters.

Of the three alternative fuels utilized by this resilience plan, electric vehicle stock is projected to

grow the most (EIA 2021). Therefore, Florida has published two documents outlining the state‘s

strategy for building out infrastructure. These are the Florida Electric Vehicle Roadmap (Burk et

al. 2020) and EV Infrastructure Master Plan (Florida Department of Transportation [FDOT],

2021). Both of these plans focus on electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) needs during

nonemergency times, briefly addressing hurricane evacuation routes. Comparisons between these

EV infrastructure development plans and this plan are included in our GIS analysis in Section 7.

3 Stakeholders and Involvement

The researchers integrated input from a wide variety of stakeholders from various geographic

areas of the state representing organizations that are involved in resilience planning or providing

critical transportation functions during emergencies. Over 240 stakeholders were identified for

this study from which to potentially seek input, including representatives from airports, ports,

local governments, county school districts, conventional and alternative fuel suppliers, transit

agencies, local and regional planning agencies, state agencies, vehicle manufacturers, and

utilities, as well as universities, research institutions, Clean Cities coalitions, advocacy groups,

and other stakeholders.

Fuel Resilience Stakeholders

Responsibility for emergency preparedness, response, and resilience is shared among various

stakeholders, and actions and decisions are made at multiple levels, including government,

private sector, and communities. See Figure 2 for responsible stakeholders, which include

emergency managers, planners, and public agencies responsible for decision-making during

emergency conditions. To plan and implement fuel resilience strategies, there is a need for cross-

collaboration among both public and private entities and to engage both responsible and

impacted stakeholders. Fuel resilience involves stakeholders across jurisdictions and requires

intergovernmental coordination, collaboration, and planning given that vulnerabilities are

embedded across stakeholder groups and government jurisdictions.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure 2. Categories of fuel resilience stakeholders

In the state of Florida, emergency response is dictated by the State of Florida Comprehensive

Emergency Management Plan (CEMP), which is administered by the Florida Division of

Emergency Management (FDEM). The plan provides a unified framework for all levels of

government within the state to respond to emergencies that is in accordance with federal

guidelines (FDEM 2020). It contains strategies, objectives, and means of mobilizing resources

and guidance for local governments to coordinate all stages of emergency management,

including emergency preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation.

Within the State of Florida Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan, the state has

designated the Emergency Support Function 12 (ESF-12) as the function responsible for

ensuring that policies and procedures that are used by the Public Service Commission, and others

engaged in responding to and recovering from power disruptions. Recently, Florida has split the

roles of ESF 12, creating ESF 19 – Fuels to assist with all transportation fuel and propane

response in the state. ESF 19 is housed at FDEM in the Infrastructure Branch, and FDEM is the

primary agency tasked with coordinating with fuel suppliers to ensure adequate supplies of fuel

are available. Response actions are coordinated and communicated with the public and

governmental agencies with support from additional agencies and organizations, such as the

Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Florida Department of

Environmental Protection, Florida Department of Health, Florida Department of Transportation,

Florida National Guard, Florida Petroleum Council, American Petroleum Institute, Florida

Trucking Association, Florida Petroleum Marketers Association, and Florida Propane Gas

Association, as well as various industry trade groups and associations. ESF-12 is responsible for

coordinating agencies and organizations with identifying response and recovery needs,

maintaining communications with fuel and energy providers, supporting the State Emergency

Response Team and local emergency operations centers to determine emergency fuel needs,

aiding local government agencies with identifying fuel providers, and maintaining

communications with electric utilities and support agencies responsible for recovery and

response of electric generating capacities and outages (FDEM 2020).

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Stakeholder Kickoff Meeting

A stakeholder webinar—held in September 2020 by the Florida Energy Office in partnership

with the Tampa Bay Clean Cities Coalition, University of South Florida, National Renewable

Energy Laboratory (NREL), and Florida Solar Energy Center—informed stakeholders on the

state resilience initiative work plan and solicited stakeholder input. The goal of the workshop

was to gain insight from stakeholders to inform the development of the Alternative

Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan following the implementation model (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Alternative Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan design and implementation model

Over 80 people attended the stakeholder workshop, representing local governments, state

governments, EVSE suppliers, airports/ports, nonprofit organizations, utilities, and other

organizations. A poll of the attendees revealed that the majority of participating fleets have

emergency fueling plans for hurricanes and other emergency events. The majority of participants

indicated that their fleets play a critical role for transporting people and/or goods before, during,

and after hurricanes, while a few others can also use their vehicles for critical roles if needed.

Participants noted that a lack of fueling infrastructure and costs of AFVs and infrastructure

remain the biggest obstacles for using alternative fuels. Following the stakeholder webinar, the

Florida Solar Energy Center published a “Resilient Florida Buildings” brochure (FSEC 2021).

Fuel Resilience Best Practices for Fleets

In addition to the workshop, researchers also reached out to individual fleets to seek input

regarding best practices in resilience initiatives. Finally, some of the preliminary findings from

the Tampa Resilience study (Kolpakov et al. 2021) also informed the development of this plan.

Lessons learned from previous hurricane events in Florida include:

• Asset staging prior to hurricane landfall is a key step for public fleets to preserve critical

transportation assets by moving them from low-lying areas to higher elevations.

• Navigating flooded streets and performing recovery operations after a hurricane may

require high-water-capable vehicles. The capability of the vehicle to operate in standing

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

water conditions is typically determined by the vehicle clearance and the position of air

intake at the highest possible point aboveground.

• Off-road equipment (e.g., loaders, dump trucks, claw trucks) is often required to remove

debris from roadways after a hurricane to restore critical transportation functions.

• Fuel strategy is critical to fleet preparation during an emergency event. Critical public

fleets are encouraged to maintain adequate fuel storage on-site (underground or

aboveground) that can sustain fleet operation for at least a week in case of fuel shortage.

Fueling prioritization strategies can be implemented to determine which vehicles fuel

first during a shortage.

• Accurately predicting fuel burn rate under emergency conditions is challenging but an

essential calculation for estimating fuel supply needs, particularly for public agencies

responsible for fueling generators. It is not uncommon for fleets to consume 2–3 times

more fuel under emergency conditions than during normal operations.

• Fuel diversification is an important resilience strategy, which may include diversifying

fuel supply channels (e.g., receiving fuel from different geographic areas, by different

delivery methods) and diversifying types of fuel used (e.g., use AFVs, flex-fuel vehicles,

and solar-powered EV charging stations).

• It is necessary to plan for redundancies in fuel supply networks to ensure the resilience of

fuel supply.

• Investing in backup electricity generators, including generators powered by alternative

fuels, is a wise strategy for fleets and facilities responsible for providing critical services

before, during, or after natural disasters.

• Sharing fuel resources between critical public fleets is a resilience strategy already

employed through the use of formal and informal agreements between local governments.

This practice can also be expanded to include better collaboration between public and

private fleets.

• Police escorts for fuel tankers may be needed to ensure timely delivery on congested

roads impacted by evacuation efforts.

• Electricity outages can contribute to fuel shortages caused by the disruption of fuel

supply channels resulting from natural disasters. Even if fuel is available, electricity is

often required to dispense it. Therefore, quick restoration of power to fueling sites after a

hurricane is crucial for ensuring that critical services will be provided.

A variety of different vehicles can be used for emergency response and recovery operations.

Transit vehicles (including large and small buses) and school buses are often used for evacuating

people and/or transporting work crews to impacted sites. Despite relatively high clearance,

transit and school buses do have limitations regarding the level of standing water in which they

can safely operate. Usually, the safe water level for a transit or school bus is just a few inches (5–

8 inches of water). Operating in higher water levels can be harmful for the bus undercarriage

components, including the rear differential, air brake system, and many grease-lubricated parts

that can be damaged if submerged in water. See section 9 for more details. Both transit and

school buses can be powered by various alternative fuels, including propane, CNG, and

electricity.

Fleets can employ high-water-capable tactical vehicles (often former military vehicles),

including Humvees and 5-ton trucks with high clearance, to transport equipment and personnel

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

during flooding events. Such vehicles are rarely designed to run on alternative fuels but can be

converted to run on propane or CNG.

Finally, there is a variety of off-road equipment that can be used for recovery operation and can

withstand high-water conditions, at least for some time. While most off-road equipment

brands/models are currently powered by conventional petroleum fuels, some of those vehicles

can operate on alternative fuels. For example, available models/brands currently on the market

include battery-electric mobile power stations that can use changeable attachments for

performing various tasks, have high clearance, are rated to operate in 3–4 feet of standing water,

and can be operated by a remote control from a significant distance. The ability to withstand

standing water and remote-control capability provide great potential for using such vehicles for

recovery operations after hurricanes/floods without placing the operator in danger.

The capability of such vehicles to remain operational while being submerged in standing water

for a prolonged period of time is questionable. Furthermore, saltwater presents additional

challenges since it is significantly more corrosive than fresh water. Even completely sealed

vehicle components can get damaged by being submerged in salt water for a prolonged period of

time, so even high-water-capable vehicles may need evaluation and repairs after encountering

salt water.

Site Visits

This plan incorporates best practices and lessons learned from site visits to five alternative fuel

fleets throughout Florida, including both public and private fleets. The site visits that informed

the development of the current plan include the following fleets: WastePro (Samford), Seminole

County Schools (Winter Springs), City Furniture (Tamarac), Broward County Transit

(Plantation), and Jacksonville Transportation Authority (Jacksonville). Reviewed technologies

included CNG, propane, and battery-electric.

Despite differences in visited fleets and types of reviewed alternative fuel technologies, some

similarities in resilience practices were noted. The common takeaways from these site visits

included:

• None of the visited alternative fuel fleets experienced interruptions in fuel supply to their

AFVs (natural gas, propane, or EVs) during recent hurricanes (in the past ~7 years). Even

when diesel and gasoline supply were interrupted due to port closures during past

hurricanes, alternative fuel remained available to the reviewed fleets.

• None of the visited fleets encountered standing water conditions during previous

hurricane events. At the same time, some of the vehicles in the visited properties are

capable of handling high standing water (e.g., refuse trucks).

• Fleets that use CNG and propane have access to mobile fueling systems that can be used

to deliver fuel in case of interruptions during natural disasters. This includes both their

own mobile fueling vehicles and vehicles owned by fuel suppliers.

• Most visited fleets rely on diesel-powered generators to provide emergency power in case

of power outages. Fleets typically maintain adequate supply of diesel for diesel-powered

generators. Few fleets also employ alternative fuel-powered generators to provide backup

power (e.g., CNG).

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

• Several visited fleets (both public and private) received and accommodated requests in

the past to share fuel with other essential fleets (mainly government fleets) in the

aftermath of hurricanes. Such requests were typically coordinated through the emergency

operations center (EOC).

• During the times of fuel shortage, such as during or after a hurricane, it is common

practice for fleets to ration fuel depending on the routes and ranges required for vehicles

to perform essential tasks.

• Fueling all vehicles (including AFVs) prior to a hurricane is a common strategy used by

fleets to prepare for the upcoming impact.

• Several visited fleets experienced severe accidents involving AFVs (including rollover

accidents and vehicle fire), none of which caused fuel tank rapture, demonstrating the

safety of AFVs.

Summaries of all the site visits are provided in Appendix B.

4 Supply Chain of Natural Gas, Propane, and

Electricity in Florida

The diversity of supply chains for alternative fuels is a large part of why they add to the

resilience of transportation systems in Florida. This section assesses the upstream supply chains

of alternative fuels and lists vendors of alternative fuels to enable fleets and refueling stations to

access the fuels.

Upstream Sources of Alternative Fuels

This subsection tracks the source and upstream pathways of alternative fuels in Florida in order

to assessing their resilience. Florida receives its natural gas supplies from four interstate

pipelines, as shown in Figure 4 and described below:

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure 4. Florida’s Four Interstate Natural Gas Pipelines

Source: EIA

• The Florida Gas Transmission line runs from Texas through the Florida Panhandle to

Miami;

• The Gulfstream Gas System is an underwater pipeline running under the Gulf of Mexico

from Mississippi and Alabama to Central Florida;

• The Sabal Trail pipeline runs from Alabama to Orange County; and

• The Cypress Pipeline supplies liquified natural gas to the Jacksonville area from Elba

Island, Georgia.

Propane stocks are abundant nationally, with nearly 78 million barrels of supply available as of

September 9, 2022 (EIA 2022). As a byproduct of domestic natural gas processing and

petroleum refining, they come from similar locations as natural gas and petroleum. However,

they are generally delivered via rail to Florida instead of pipeline. Florida belongs to the

Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts (PADD) Subdistrict 1C, which includes the

Lower Atlantic States. The PADD is the Federal classification used for organizing the allocation

of fuels derived from petroleum products.

Florida is one of the largest generators of electricity in the nation, second only to Texas.

Florida’s primary fuel source (fueling ¾ of all electricity) is natural gas, but 2/3 of these power

plants can use fuel oil as a backup fuel source. The remaining ¼ of Florida’s electricity is fueled

by a diverse set of two nuclear power plants, coal-fired power plants, solar and biofuels, listed

from largest to smallest contributors (EIA 2021).

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Alternative Fuel Vendors

All Clean Cities coalitions in the state of Florida, including Tampa Bay Clean Cities, Southeast

Florida Clean Cities, Central Florida Clean Cities, and North Florida Clean Fuels, collaborated to

compile a list of alternative fuel vendors in Florida. Identified organizations include vendors of

various alternative fuels (CNG, propane, ethanol, biodiesel), utilities, infrastructure providers,

stationary and mobile generator suppliers, and other types of organizations that may be useful for

providing redundancy in service during emergency events.

Table 1 provides an inventory of 62 alternative fuel vendors. These include 28 electricity, 15

natural gas, 11 propane, 10 biofuel, and 3 hydrogen vendors (some vendors offer more than one

fuel). While most listed vendors are headquartered in Florida, some are not. Instead, they have a

presence in Florida or provide their products/services in the state.

Table 1. Alternative Fuel Vendors in the State of Florida

Organization Name Fuel/Infrastructure Type Location

All in One Propane Propane Leesburg, FL

American Homegrown Fuel

Corporation

Hydrogen, biofuels

American Natural Gas CNG

Amerigas Pr

opane Jacksonville, FL

AmeriGas Propane Propane Tampa, FL

ampCNG Nat

ural gas Chicago, IL

Be-Ev.Com EVSE infrastructure

BioDiesel Las Americas (BDLA) Bi

odiesel production Miami, FL

Blink EVSE infrastructure Miami, FL

Blossman Gas Pr

opane Jacksonville, FL

Brickell Energy EVSE infrastructure Miami, FL

ChargePoint, Inc. EVSE

infrastructure

City of Orlando Electric Orlando, FL

Clean Energy CNG Station Orlando

rport

CNG Orlando, FL

Clean Energy Fuels Natural gas Dallas, TX

Clearwater Gas System Nat

ural gas Clearwater, FL

Commercial Aviation AF Initiative

(CAAFI)

Aviation fuel

Dannar

froad EV/mobile power

station

Muncie, IN

Duke Energy Electric Charlotte, NC

Efacec USA EVSE

infrastructure

Endera EVSE infrastructure

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Organization Name Fuel/Infrastructure Type Location

Ferrell Gas - Pinellas Park Service

Center

Propane Pinellas Park, FL

Fleetwing Corporation Biodiesel, ethanol Lakeland, FL

Florida City Gas CNG Dor

al, FL

Florida Power & Light Company Electric Juno Beach, FL

Florida Public Utilities Nat

ural gas, propane, electric West Palm Beach, FL

Florida Public Utilities Electric, CNG Fernandina Beach, FL

GAIN Clean Fuel CNG Kis

simmee, FL

Gate Petroleum Ethanol, CNG, electric Jacksonville, FL

Glover Oil Bi

odiesel 20 Melbourne, FL

GoSpace EVSE infrastructure

Heritage Propane Pr

opane Tampa, FL

Jacksonville Transportation Authority CNG Jacksonville, FL

JEA Ele

ctric Jacksonville, FL

NASA/KSC Electric/B20/E85/hydrogen Kennedy Space Center, FL

Nopetro Nat

ural gas Coral Gables, FL

NoPetro CNG (LYNX) CNG Orlando, FL

Northside Propane Inc. Pr

opane Lutz, FL

NovaCharge EVSE infrastructure Oldsmar, FL

OBE Power Networks EVSE

infrastructure Miami, FL

Orlando Utilities Commission Electric Orlando, FL

Palatka Gas CNG

Pioneer Critical Power Generators/mobile Miami, FL

Pioneer Power Mobility Mobi

le EVSE/propane Champlin, MN

Pivotal LNG Liquefied natural gas (LNG)

Port Canaveral Ele

ctric/LNG Cape Canaveral, FL

Protec Fuel Management LLC Ethanol Boca Raton, FL

Rack Electric EVSE

infrastructure Boca Raton, FL

Ross Plumbing CNG Leesburg, Fl

St. Johns County CNG

Suburban Propane Propane Tampa, FL

Superior Energy Systems Pr

opane infrastructure Columbia Station, OH

Targray Biodiesel, ethanol Kirkland, Quebec

TECO Energy Ele

ctric Tampa, FL

TECO Peoples Gas CNG Tampa, FL

Tesla Ele

ctric Palo Alto, CA

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Organization Name Fuel/Infrastructure Type Location

Thorntons Inc. Ethanol Louisville, KY

TruStar Energy Natural gas Rancho Cucamonga, CA

University of Central Florida Electric/propane Orlando, FL

VISTRA Ele

ctric, natural gas Tampa, FL

Waste Pro CNG Bunnell, FL

Withlacoochee Electric Cooperative Ele

ctric Dade City, FL

Appendix C provides a more detailed list of alternative fuel vendors that includes company

names and contact information.

5 Communications Practices and Protocols

Hurricanes limit communication by knocking out cellphone towers and other communications

infrastructure. At the same time, they increase the need for fleet and vehicle communications to

facilitate evacuation and recovery operations. This section assesses the current fleet

communication strategies during hurricanes, with a focus on areas in need of improvement. It

then introduces two solutions to some of the communications problems that currently limit the

usefulness of alternative fuels before, during, and after a hurricane. The first solution is a website

and GIS mapping tool that NREL created to facilitate emergency planning and ensure that fleets

have the right contacts and information beforehand to minimize the last-minute communication

needs during a hurricane. This website also ensures that fleet managers know the likelihood of

their home station being shut down and the best areas to refuel if their station is no longer

operable. The second solution is a series of algorithms developed by the University of South

Florida’s Center for Urban Transportation Research (CUTR) that maximizes the evacuation

potential of EVSE in a given area by directing vehicles to available EVSE and charging them the

appropriate amount to make it to safety.

Current Status and Shortcomings of Communications During

Hurricanes

At a September 2020 webinar hosted by the FDACS Office of Energy and project partners

Tampa Bay Clean Cities Coalition, University of South Florida, NREL, and the Florida Solar

Energy Center, stakeholders from Florida municipalities were asked about how fleets

communicate with dispatch during hurricanes and other disaster situations.

In preparation for hurricanes, EOC communications are tested, and radios are staged at

accessible locations, including in high-clearance vehicles. Local governments are primarily

responsible for developing and managing local communications plans in coordination with the

state. EOCs have a designated list of where fleet vehicles can refuel, which does not currently

include alternative fuels.

Participants reported that their fleets communicate via radio, cellphones, and landlines during

actual disaster situations. Cell phone outages have not been a problem in recent events, and

communication that occurs from EOCs and backup EOCs also includes email correspondence,

which has remained largely intact in recent events.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

During or after a hurricane, public safety is the priority, and first responders have exclusive

access to public emergency radio channels. According to interviews with the Florida Division of

Emergency Management, many school districts have their own designated channels and

dispatchers, and utilities often have their own systems. School bus channels are not prioritized

during emergencies, despite the fact that these high-clearance, high-capacity, often propane-

fueled vehicles could serve as a means of getting people without their own vehicles to

emergency shelters (which are often located in elementary schools) prior to hurricane impacts.

Utilities and telecommunications services have their own radio channels and are given second

priority by the Division of Emergency Management after first responders. This covers many of

the utility-owned, CNG-fueled vehicles used to repair power lines.

Along with the commercial-grade radio, amateur radio network (ham), satellite phones, business

band radio, and mobile cellular towers are sometimes used by fleets to communicate. Private

companies are responsible for their own communication redundancies, and some choose to pay a

retainer to third parties for access to equipment (e.g., mobile cellular towers) during hurricanes

or other emergency events.

Most of the emergency planning and coordination is handled at the county level, although some

cities have dedicated emergency coordinators. When overwhelmed, these local governments

request “missions” from the state, who can subsequently request a mission to the Federal

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). When possible, FDEM sets up camps and mobile

fueling depots for first responders. These fueling depots typically provide diesel and unleaded

fuel but no alternative fuels.

EVSE Communications Systems

To assess the communications capabilities and needs of EV charging infrastructure, NREL

interviewed a variety of researchers and managers at ChargePoint. ChargePoint was chosen

because it is the largest charging network provider in Florida. All of ChargePoint’s public EVSE

are networked (i.e., connected to the internet), and therefore allow for communication between

the EV charging infrastructure and the ChargePoint mobile app. This allows drivers to see in real

time the available ChargePoint networked EV chargers in their area. In addition, the app shows

the availability of “roaming partners” outside the ChargePoint network that ChargePoint

members could use. If connectivity were to go down, ChargePoint members could still charge on

ChargePoint equipment, but nonmembers would no longer be able to.

Individual EVSE are built to withstand 18 inches of standing water (per the National Electrical

Code), but if this threshold is surpassed and the hardware is damaged, it cannot be brought back

online until it is physically inspected by a technician. ChargePoint also has mobile DC fast

chargers (DCFCs) on skids/trucks (with 4 feet of clearance) that can be brought to appropriate

locations and connected quickly to the grid, which could be critical to deploy along major

evacuation routes before a hurricane. It should be noted that there are skids with DCFCs and

propane-powered generators available on the market (Pioneer Power Solutions, Inc. 2022). Some

features of ChargePoint’s communication system that could help coordinate charging during an

emergency include reservations and waitlists, but they fear that using these features in an

emergency situation could lead to the chargers going unused for valuable minutes. Another

feature that could help encourage people not to idle at an EV charger is the capability for hosts to

raise their prices quickly in response to demand. However, the raises need to be limited so as to

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

not be considered “price gouging,” which is illegal. The limitations to the network’s

communications systems and remote features are addressed in Solution 2.

Solution 1: New Website to Facilitate Planning

To facilitate the use of alternative fuels before and during a hurricane, NREL developed a

Florida Resilience Tool website to help facilitate planning and communications. Available at

https://widgets-stage.tada-stage.nrel.gov/tada/fl-resiliency/, this website uses state-of-the-art

technologies to provide useful maps, information, connections, and other resources. Here, users

are presented with state-level information, including links to Clean Cities coalitions and the

FDEM’s website, Facebook, and Twitter pages. It is intended for use by resilience planners, fleet

managers, individuals planning their evacuation, and alternative fuel station operators.

Dropdown menus provided at the top of the page allow users to adjust information displayed by

choosing from various map layers and counties. When changed, the website automatically

refreshes to present the information selected.

Figure 5. Florida Resilience Tool homepage

To obtain local information, users can select a county from a drop-down menu at the top right-

hand side of the page or click the appropriate county on the map.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure 6. County-specific resources appear when a county is selected.

Where available, the following information is presented:

• Emergency management department

name.

• Link to emergency management

website.

• Link to emergency management

Twitter.

• Link to emergency management

Facebook.

• Emergency management department

address.

• Link to county hurricane guide.

• Link to county evacuation zone

information.

• Link to county evacuation route

information.

• Shelter location information.

• Special needs shelter location

information.

• County special needs registry.

• Link to county notification system.

• Link to county emergency

management app.

• Community Emergency Response

Team (CERT) information.

• Link to county YouTube station.

• County 311 app.

• Links to partner organizations.

• County population.

• Clean City coalition information.

A second drop-down menu allows users to select a map layer with the following options:

• Population (default).

• Percent of population with no

vehicles.

• Median income (to ensure equitable

preparation).

• Electric station locations.

• CNG station locations.

• Propane (liquefied petroleum gas

[LPG]) station locations.

• Biodiesel (B20 and above) station

locations.

• Ethanol (E85) station locations.

• LNG station locations.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure 7. Florida Resilience Tool map layers

Users may select from one or both drop-down menus to view detailed information. Clicking on a

county on the map also selects that county and updates the information displayed.

Figure 8. Accessing fuel-specific station location by county

When both a fuel type and county are selected, users can see fuel station details in the info box

that help fleet managers determine if the station would be compatible with their vehicles and the

likelihood that the station could remain in operation during a power outage. Clicking “SEE

MORE” displays more detailed station location information such as fill type, fill pressure, fill

rate, vehicle accessibility, electric generator existence, and fuel, as well as change to station

capacity with a generator, if applicable.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure 9. Station-specific information provides detail

A link to download emergency contact information for fueling stations is provided, but this

information is considered private and therefore only accessible by Clean Cities coordinators.

Please contact your local coordinator via the Clean Cities link in order for them to download this

information from the coordinator toolbox (via the state-level link showed in Figure 9).

From any view of the Florida Resilience Tool, users can click the small map image to see

detailed emergency GIS information. This information is elaborated in the GIS analysis in

Section 7.

Figure 10. Detailed emergency GIS information accessible from any view in the Florida Resilience

Tool

Solution 2: EVSE Communications Algorithms and Web Tool

In addition to the web-based Florida Resilience Tool, an electric vehicle evacuation planning

prototype web tool was also developed to better prepare the state for the use of electric vehicles

before and during an emergency event.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

A long-distance evacuation is expected when an emergency event affects a wide range of areas

(Adderly et al. 2018). In the United States, private vehicles are usually the first evacuation mode

choice, given high automobile ownership (Phiophuead and Kunsuwan 2019). During Hurricane

Irma in 2018, it was reported that about 90% of people evacuated with private vehicles (Wong,

Shaheen, and Walker 2018). As an alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles, the

popularity of EVs has rapidly developed in the past years because of lower maintenance costs,

lower operating costs, performance advantages, lower carbon footprints, and government support

(Bushnell, Muehlegger, and Rapson 2022).

It was predicted that the global EV market would grow from 4.1 million in EVs in 2021 to nearly

35 million EVs in 2030 (MarketsandMarkets 2021). Some households may only possess EVs and

need to use them for long-distance travel in the case of an emergency (Feng et al. 2020). Li et al.

(2022a) state that “Long-distance travel with EVs in regular circumstances is already challenging

because of limited charging facilities, long charging time, and short driving ranges (Rajaeifar et

al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2021), not to mention in the case of an emergency where the travel

demand (or charging demand) is significantly high. Without proper management, serious

congestion could happen at charging stations. This results in a long network clearance time, thus

putting human lives at risk”. Efficient mass evacuation planning for EVs is demanded.

Therefore, the electric vehicle evacuation planning web tool has been developed.

After registration with the tool, people evacuating in EVs can make charging reservations before

the predicted landfall of the hurricane. The web tool collects evacuation demand and ends the

reservation portal as needed (e.g., when a hurricane is close at hand). Then the back-end

algorithm will optimize the evacuation route for each user, considering the limited charging

facilities. Users can log back on the web tool and check the detailed evacuation route, including

when to start evacuating and where to charge. As a preliminary user guide, the detailed user

interface and back-end algorithm of this web tool are introduced in the following subsections.

EV Evacuation Tool Homepage

Before registration, users will see the homepage of the web tool, as shown in Figure 11. On the

homepage, publicly available EV charging stations are shown on the map of Florida. The data

source is the Alternative Fuels Data Center (https://afdc.energy.gov/).

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure 11. EV Evacuation Tool homepage

Signup and Login to the EV Evacuation Tool

To make an evacuation reservation, users must first register. As shown in Figure 12, a user

should create an account with their email and set a password. After signing up, the user will be

able to log in to the web tool.

Figure 12. Signup and login to the EV Evacuation Tool

Evacuation Reservation

After logging in, users can make evacuation reservations. It should be noted that one user can

only make one evacuation reservation considering the limited resources, especially in the case of

an emergency. As shown in Figure 13, users need to indicate the evacuation origin and

destination. Instead of typing the detailed address, they are asked to select from two drop-down

lists with cities and regions in Florida. Specifically, the origin and destination options include

Pensacola, Panama City, Youngstown, Port St. Joe, Tallahassee, Perry, Gainesville, Jacksonville,

Lake City, Daytona Beach, Ocala, Cedar Key, Wildwood, Titusville, Orlando, Vero Beach, Lake

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Placid, Cleveland, Sarasota, Tampa, South Bay, West Palm Beach, Dania Beach, Miami,

Islamorada, and Key West. These cities/regions are selected in a way such that more

origin/destination options are available at places with denser populations. At the same time, for

places with very light populations, necessary origin/destination options are also available such

that all users can use this web tool to plan their evacuation. Users will select the cities/regions

(provided in the list) in the vicinity of their actual origins and destinations when making

reservations. The limited number of origins/destinations significantly helps with the solution

efficiency of the back-end optimization algorithm. More city/region options can be incorporated

as long as the supporting computation resources can handle them.

Besides the origin and destination, users also need to input the departure time window (a range

for the preferred evacuation starting time) and the initial electricity level of their EVs in

percentage (a rough estimation is enough). Users will never be suggested to evacuate earlier than

their intended time window but may be delayed for system-level optimality. After all the

information is filled out, users should hit reserve, and their reservation will immediately enter the

database, where all evacuation demand is saved.

Figure 13. Evacuation reservation in the EV Evacuation Tool

Back-End Planning Algorithm

After receiving all the evacuation reservations, the back-end planning algorithm designs the

optimal evacuation plan for EVs considering limited charging facilities. This problem is

complex, involving EV charging, routing, and scheduling. An intuitive approach is to construct a

time-space-energy extended network to solve it. However, such a network for a practical

application instance is likely too huge to solve. To circumvent this computational challenge, a

three-stage method (Figure 14) is proposed to efficiently solve this problem based on the

following premises. First, vehicles tend to charge in the vicinity of the evacuation path. Charging

stations far away from the evacuation path will not be visited because of the considerable energy

and time costs. Second, only a few candidate paths are selected by each origin-destination EV

flow (OD flow) during the evacuation. Paths that are too long can be trimmed from

consideration. The inputs to the proposed method are a set of evacuation demands (specifying

the origin, destination, initial EV energy level, and intended departure time window) submitted

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by web tool users and a network (consisting of a set of critical locations without charging

facilities, a link matrix between locations, a distance matrix between locations, and a set of

charging stations). The output is the evacuation plan, including the evacuation routes considering

charging and the departure schedule for each OD flow.

Figure 14. Back-end evacuation planning algorithm structure

Stage 1 is conducted to reduce the network size and mimic realistic evacuation behavior that

vehicles usually charge in the vicinity of the evacuation path, and only a small number of short

paths are selected by each OD flow during the evacuation. Stage 1 first consolidates the network

by pre-assigning charging stations to the closest critical locations and then aggregating a group

of charging stations in the same vicinity into a mega charging facility. Next, a customized

shortest path algorithm is proposed to trim excessively long evacuation paths and only consider a

small set of short paths between each OD pair. Given this, sparsely distributed charging stations

in the network should be allocated wisely to path locations to balance the EV charging demand

and supply. To do this, Stage 2 computes the location significance based on the path set solved in

Stage 1 and the evacuation demand. With the location significance, charging stations are

reassigned and reaggregated such that locations visited by more EVs are assigned with more

charging facilities. Finally, in Stage 3, a set of candidate evacuation paths is solved based on the

evacuation demand and the network after balancing the charging demand and supply using the

same algorithm as in Stage 1. An evacuation planning model is then formulated to devise the

optimal mass evacuation plan for EVs. This model optimally selects evacuation paths and

schedules departure for EVs of each OD pair. Charging facility capacity is considered to avoid

congestion at charging stations. This model is macroscopic because aggregated EV flows are

considered to handle the mass evacuation demand efficiently rather than tracking each EV

movement. An optimization objective of minimizing the network clearance time and the delayed

departure time is used to evacuate as soon as possible.

Evacuation Route

After the back-end algorithm optimizes the evacuation routes, users can check the results by

logging in to the web tool. An evacuation route for a user is provided in Figure 15. This user is

suggested to start evacuation at 2:20 a.m. from Miami. The initial electricity level is 84%. By

4:20 a.m., this user will leave a charging station with a full battery. This user will continue the

evacuation and leave another charging station with a full battery at 12:00 p.m. Finally, by 3:20

p.m., this user arrives at the destination (i.e., Lake City) with an electricity level of 20%. The

evacuation ends.

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Figure 15. Evacuation route

It should be noted that the electric vehicle evacuation planning web tool described here is a

prototype to demonstrate the feasibility of optimally scheduling long-distance EV evacuations in

the case of an emergency. The web tool operating stakeholders are suggested to conduct the

following additional efforts before the actual deployment of the web tool:

• Connect this prototype with the Alternative Fuels Data Center

(https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity_locations.html#/find/nearest?fuel=ELEC) to

incorporate the changes in charging stations (e.g., newly added stations and the number

of charging ports at each station).

• Connect this prototype with the National Highway System maps

(https://www.fdot.gov/statistics/hwydata/nhsmaps.shtm) to incorporate the changes in the

physical roadway network (e.g., new link).

• Switch to a commercial map application programming interface (e.g., Google Maps) to

guarantee a robust and efficient illustration of the evacuation route.

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6 Long-Term Planning for Electric Vehicle

Infrastructure Expansion

Electric vehicles are projected to increase their market share more than any other alternative fuel

in the history of automobiles. Therefore, Florida needs to forecast their infrastructure needs well

into the future and consider the resilience implications. NREL did this with their Electric Vehicle

Infrastructure – Projection (EVI-Pro) tool. This section analyzes the EV charging infrastructure

needs in Florida from 2030 to 2050 to meet the charging demand of EVs—primarily light-duty

vehicles. The statewide charging infrastructure need is quantified using the EVI-Pro tool,

incorporating the spatial travel patterns, vehicles, and charger attributes in a bottom-up

simulation framework. The analysis is performed at the county level for 2030 and 2050,

considering the EV adoption rate increase in Florida. The results indicate that in public and

workplace charging, the needs for chargers are 46,487 and 170,471 in 2030 and 2050,

respectively, including 5,561 and 26,901 DCFCs. Conversely, the home charging infrastructure

needs are 159,103 and 464,709 in 2030 and 2050, respectively.

Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Projections Method Overview

EVI-Pro is a simulation tool that identifies the electric vehicle charging infrastructure and

predicts the power demand for the EVSE based on the anticipated electric vehicle fleet

composition and their corresponding driving behaviors (Wood, Raghavan, et al. 2017). EVI-Pro

employs the real-world travel data and the EV projections to estimate the charging requirements

in work, home, and public places. The model’s anticipated output is the spatial/temporal

consumer power demand for charging and the corresponding charging infrastructure projection

at the targeted area. The general EVI-Pro model structure and input/output data flows are

presented in Figure 16.

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Figure 16. EVI-Pro model structure and data flow

The two fundamental assumptions in EVI-Pro are the vehicle and EV charging infrastructure

attributes that enable the model to identify the energy consumption and power supply for the EV

travel demand. To simulate mainstream drivers’ travel behavior, National Household Travel

Survey (NHTS) travel data are analyzed and categorized based on population density to

represent the travel behavior at the county level in Florida (FHWA 2017). The projected EV fleet

size in 2030 and 2050 are derived from the Annual Energy Outlook to reflect the increased

adoption rate of EVs (EIA 2020).

Vehicle and Infrastructure Attribute Assumptions

The vehicle and charging infrastructure attributes are the two major assumptions in EVI-Pro to

complete the charging simulations. An EV’s attributes are highly related to its electric range.

Thus, the vehicle attributes required in the EVI-Pro simulation are electric range, vehicle drive

efficiency, minimum range tolerance, onboard charger efficiency, and maximum AC charging

power (Wood, Raghavan, et al. 2017). The EV attribute assumptions are derived from the

California Energy Commission report based on the vehicle powertrain type and electric ranges

(Crisostomo

et al. 2021). On the other hand, the EV charging infrastructure attribute

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assumptions are made based on the three major categories defined by the Alternative Fuels Data

Center of charging power levels: Level 1 (L1), Level 2 (L2), and DCFC.

The selection of

charging options within EVI-Pro needs to consider the dwell time available for the vehicle to be

charged. Longer dwell times lead to lower-power charging, whereas short dwell times usually

lead to higher-power charging options, such as DCFC (Wood, Rames, et al. 2017). Thus, the

suitable charging infrastructure type (location and power level) could be simulated by EVI-

Pro considering the dwell time and consequent travel need. Different charging infrastructure

options available to consumers in EVI-Pro are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. EV Charging Infrastructure Technology Specifications

Location

Level

Power

Comment

Home

1.4 kW

3.6 kW

Battery

-electric vehicles

simulated with higher L2 power to enable full overnight

charge

Work

1.4 kW

6.2 kW

lug-in hybrid EV onboard charger limits maximum power to 3.6 kW in model

Public

1.4 kW

6.2 kW

lug-in hybrid EV onboard charger limits maximum power to 3.6 kW in model

50 kW

attery-electric vehicles only

Source: Wood, Rames, et al. 2017

Florida County-Level Travel Demand Assumptions

To identify EV charging infrastructure needs in Florida, the corresponding spatial travel data

representing the travel behavior and EV fleet information are necessary to complete the driving

and charging demand simulations. The Florida county-level travel patterns are simulated using

the travel information record from the 2017 NHTS, which is the most recent survey collected by

the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) focusing on travel behavior data in the United

States (FHWA 2017). This survey provides travel details for the demographic travel behaviors of

around 130,000 households, including work and school community, shopping trips, recreational

activities, health care visits, and so on. For each trip record, the detailed trip information includes

the departure and arrival times, destination type, trip distance, dwell time, and the specific day of

travel during the week. The travel data are incorporated into EVI-Pro daily to consider the

weekday/weekend travel behavior variation as well. NHTS cannot offer enough travel data

sample at the Florida county level. Thus, the travel data from NHTS are categorized by

population density derived from the 2018 American Community Survey (U.S. Census Bureau

2020), as illustrated in Figure 17. The subset travel data with the same population density in the

specific county are employed to simulate the travel pattern of this county.

https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity_infrastructure.html

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Figure 17. Florida county-level population density and EV fleets

The Florida county-level EV fleet projections in 2030 and 2050 are derived from the 2020

Annual Energy Outlook published by the U.S. Energy Information Administration, which

forecasts the annual light-duty vehicle fleet size by technology type (EIA 2020). The EV fleet

size is distributed throughout the state at the county level based on existing hybrid electric

vehicle registration data from R. L. Polk & Co., and their share is compared to the total vehicles

(Moniot, Rames, and Wood 2019). One of the important assumptions in charging infrastructure

estimation is the residential charger access ratio. Currently, most of the EV charging occurs at

residential locations; with the increase of the EV penetration rate, the residential charging ratio

decreases due to a higher total charging infrastructure number and density. Thus, considering the

different EV penetration rates, the residential charging access ratios are 90% and 80% in 2030

and 2050, respectively (Ge et al. 2021).

EVI-Pro Simulation Analysis and Results

The EV charger need at the Florida county level is simulated based on the location and time

when a charger is necessary to satisfy a driver’s travel demand. Home, public, and workplace are

the three options for charging locations. Furthermore, to consider the difference in travel

behaviors during weekdays and weekends, the corresponding charging events and power demand

are simulated and presented in Figure 18. As seen in the figure, residential charging load

demands take the largest share—about 70%. The two peaks for daily charging load profiles

coincide with the residential charging load and the time range when vehicles arrive at homes.

Furthermore, comparing the charging load profiles between weekdays and weekends, the

workplace charging load decreases and the public places charging load increases on weekend

days. Also, the charging load for DCFCs is more volatile than other charger types due to the high

power demand.

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Figure 18. EV charging load profiles in 2030, n = 80,000

EVI-Pro quantifies the EV charger need by calculating the charging power required by charger

type and the corresponding charging power level based on the corresponding charger attributes.

Tables 3 and 4 present the nonresidential EV charger needs at the county level in Florida in 2030

and 2050, respectively.

Table 3. 2030 EV Nonresidential Charging Infrastructure Projection

County

DCFC

ublic L2

ork L2

BROWARD

484

1,454

2,330

PALM BEACH

465

1,359

2,177

MIAMI

-DADE

427

1,361

2,170

ORANGE

443

1,244

2,003

HILLSBOROUGH

346

1,010

1,622

PINELLAS

280

838

1,346

DUVAL

207

589

942

LEE

207

575

917

BREVARD

195

542

867

SARASOTA

177

498

792

SEMINOLE

148

421

672

POLK

147

391

625

VOLUSIA

142

389

622

PASCO

133

364

581

MANATEE

123

348

554

COLLIER

123

342

547

LAKE

115

301

481

SAINT JOHNS

108

285

454

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

County

DCFC

ublic L2

ork L2

ALACHUA

102

277

440

MARION

245

391

LEON

248

398

OSCEOLA

226

360

SAINT LUCIE

209

334

ESCAMBIA

190

303

SUMTER

161

256

CHARLOTTE

157

252

OKALOOSA

156

247

MARTIN

153

242

CLAY

134

214

INDIAN RIVER

133

213

HERNANDO

130

207

CITRUS

127

203

SANTA ROSA

119

191

BAY

113

179

FLAGLER

103

165

MONROE

138

NASSAU

107

WALTON

103

HIGHLANDS

103

PUTNAM

COLUMBIA

LEVY

SUWANNEE

JACKSON

WAKULLA

GADSDEN

OKEECHOBEE

HENDRY

DE SOTO

BRADFORD

WASHINGTON

GILCHRIST

JEFFERSON

GULF

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

County

DCFC

ublic L2

ork L2

FRANKLIN

BAKER

HOLMES

HARDEE

TAYLOR

CALHOUN

DIXIE

GLADES

MADISON

UNION

HAMILTON

LIBERTY

LAFAYETTE

Table 3 presents the nonresidential EV charging infrastructure need in 2030. The total Florida

state public EVSE need is 45,485. To be specific, 54% are work L2 chargers, 34% are public

L2 chargers, and 12% are DCFCs. At the county level, Broward is the county with the largest EV

charger need, whereas Lafayette is the county that will need the fewest EVSE.

Table 4. 2050 EV Nonresidential Charging Infrastructure Projection

County

DCFC

ublic L2

ork L2

BROWARD

2,355

4,837

8,547

PALM BEACH

2,262

4,479

7,980

MIAMI

-DADE

2,060

4,578

7,951

ORANGE

2,156

4,053

7,356

HILLSBOROUGH

1,680

3,332

5,952

PINELLAS

1,367

2,798

4,941

DUVAL

1,003

1,921

3,451

LEE

998

1,855

3,357

BREVARD

946

1,751

3,181

SARASOTA

854

1,612

2,896

SEMINOLE

716

1,370

2,461

POLK

706

1,248

2,287

VOLUSIA

683

1,255

2,276

PASCO

641

1,169

2,130

MANATEE

596

1,133

2,028

COLLIER

595

1,107

2,002

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

County

DCFC

ublic L2

ork L2

LAKE

551

959

1,760

SAINT JOHNS

519

905

1,658

ALACHUA

487

888

1,607

MARION

458

775

1,431

LEON

434

804

1,457

OSCEOLA

405

726

1,317

SAINT LUCIE

366

674

1,225

ESCAMBIA

337

609

1,110

SUMTER

304

505

933

CHARLOTTE

282

502

925

OKALOOSA

271

502

904

MARTIN

270

488

886

CLAY

244

426

781

INDIAN RIVER

237

425

782

HERNANDO

236

412

759

CITRUS

239

401

740

SANTA ROSA

218

378

698

BAY

200

359

656

FLAGLER

187

327

607

MONROE

151

278

507

NASSAU

126

213

392

WALTON

123

205

375

HIGHLANDS

119

206

378

PUTNAM

167

COLUMBIA

163

LEVY

109

SUWANNEE

JACKSON

WAKULLA

GADSDEN

OKEECHOBEE

HENDRY

DE SOTO

BRADFORD

WASHINGTON

GILCHRIST

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

County

DCFC

ublic L2

ork L2

JEFFERSON

GULF

FRANKLIN

BAKER

HOLMES

HARDEE

TAYLOR

CALHOUN

DIXIE

GLADES

MADISON

UNION

HAMILTON

LIBERTY

LAFAYETTE

Table 4 shows the EV public charging infrastructure prediction for 2050. The total Florida

charging infrastructure need is 170,471 in 2050: 54% are work L2 chargers, 30% are public L2

chargers, 16% are DCFCs, and the remainder are home chargers. At the county level, similar

to 2030, Broward is the county with the largest EV charger need of 15,739, whereas Lafayette is

the county with the least EV charger need of 13.

Figure 19. Comparison of 2030 and 2050 EV charging infrastructure

Figure 19 compares the EV charging infrastructure number in 2030 and 2050. With the increase

in EV numbers, the charging infrastructure need raises correspondingly. To be specific, public

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

L2 charger numbers increase about 3 times in 2050 compared to 2030. In contrast, the work

L2 charger number increases 3.7 times, and the DCFC number increases around 5 times. The

phenomenon could be explained by the increase in vehicle numbers and the decreased residential

charging access ratio. Furthermore, DCFCs could offer higher power and shorter charging times.

Thus, the rise in DCFC numbers could reduce the burden of other public chargers. Therefore, the

increase in public L2 and work L2 chargers is not as large as DCFCs.

The number of EVs in Florida is projected to be 74,154 in 2030, with 17% of them being plug-in

hybrid EVs and 83% of them being battery-electric vehicles. In 2050, the total number of EVs is

expected to grow to 163,084, with 11% EVs and 89% battery-electric vehicles. The real-world

household travel data were analyzed and adopted in EVI-Pro to understand and simulate the

travel behavior of these EVs in Florida. 2017 NHTS travel data covering 129,112 households

with more than 606,600 trip records have been analyzed and categorized to represent the travel

behavior at different Florida counties based on the population density. EVI-Pro simulations

estimate that 5,561 DCFCs, 15,749 public L1 chargers, and 25,177 workplace L2 chargers are

required to support the EVs in Florida in 2030. The charging infrastructure demand increases to

26,901 DCFCs, 51,321 public L2 chargers, and 92,249 workplace L2 chargers in 2050.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

7 GIS-Based Preparation for Hurricanes

This section addresses the challenges the state of Florida has for AFV refueling station

implementation in the context of flooding resulting from hurricanes, tides, or sea level rise.

While alternative fuels can alleviate broad petroleum outages, they currently have fewer

refueling/recharging stations in Florida. This, combined with the flooding that accompanies

hurricanes, requires logistical preparation before a disaster strikes. The analysis in this section

addresses two distinct aspects of AFV infrastructure as it relates to floods in Florida. First, it

demonstrates a spatial analysis approach to identify potential locations for new AFV stations to

increase the connectivity of the emergency evacuation road network for AFVs, whether for

purposes of evacuation or emergency response operations. This would bolster the ability of

residents and disaster responders using AFVs to reliably refuel during a flood event. Second, this

analysis addresses future needs for EVSE by comparing counts of current EVSE ports against the

future EVSE needs forecast in Section 6. Figure 20 outlines the two objectives of this analysis.

Figure 20. Summary of the two geospatial Florida AFV flood resilience analyses

The primary outcome of this analysis is a web mapping tool that Florida’s emergency

management practitioners can use to incorporate alternative fuels and vehicles into their

resilience plans. The tool is not intended to compete with any live web dashboards that provide

real-time emergency information, such as GATOR (FDEM 2021). As such, it is not intended for

emergency use during any flooding event. The web map does not provide any live data feeds but

can be updated annually or quarterly to ensure plans are up to date with the latest state of the

alternative fueling infrastructure in Florida. The AFVs of interest in this analysis are propane,

CNG, and electric vehicles (charged through both Level 2 EVSE and DCFCs).

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

This section is further divided in subsections that address the data used for the analysis,

methodology, results, an example case study, and next steps.

Utilizing Current Infrastructure Data

Florida has AFVs and alternative refueling stations right now that can be utilized during

evacuation and recovery operations. This section of the GIS analysis highlights how they might

be best used. The descriptions and sources of the data used for this analysis are detailed in the

following subsections.

Current AFV Stations

The core data set for this work is current AFV stations, as downloaded from the Alternative

Fuels Data Center Alternative Fuel Station Locator.

The Alternative Fuels Data Center

provides extensive data for the location and descriptions for both public and private alternative

fueling stations. The station data are publicly available and updated daily. The stations used in

this analysis are all public stations that meet the criteria for Alternative Fuel Corridors, as well as

private propane, CNG, and LNG stations that otherwise meet the Alternative Fuel Corridors

criteria. These criteria are used by FHWA’s Alternative Fuel Corridors program to designate

sections of highway that AFVs can reliably traverse while having adequate ability to fuel based

on baseline range assumptions (FHWA 2021). Figure 21 shows the criteria for each alternative

fuel type.

Figure 21. FHWA alternative fuel corridor requirements.

Note: The current analysis does not include hydrogen due to lack of vehicles and infrastructure in Florida.

Data Source: FHWA 2021

https://afdc.energy.gov/stations/

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Fleet Locations

In addition to fueling stations, various private fleet managers provided data for their fleet

locations through their local Clean Cities coalition. These data came from numerous fleets in

Florida, through all four of the Florida Clean Cities coalitions and other National Clean Fleet

Partners (EERE 2014). Data included vehicle type, fuel type, number of vehicles, and location.

Fleet names were omitted for privacy reasons.

Flood Zones, Storm Surge Zones, Shelters, and Evacuation Routes

This analysis uses several data sets that pertain to floods. These data sets were provided by

FDEM and University of Florida’s GeoPlan Center. The first dataset for this layer is the flood

zone data. Flood zones were trimmed to only include 100-year zones because the 500-year zones

cover nearly the entire state and were therefore not useful for the scenarios envisioned in this

analysis. The second data set was storm surge data, which include zones of storm surge

inundation for Category 1–5 hurricanes, as well as storm tides (T). Finally, the flood shelters and

evacuation routes data sets were used as the core transportation network for the station

connectivity analysis. Figure 22 shows a snapshot of these data sets in Florida.

Figure 22. Florida flood risk, emergency shelters, and evacuation routes.

Emergency shelter and evacuation routes obtained from Florida’s Division of Emergency Management

(https://geodata.myflorida.com/datasets/7fc21b70ee4942a898ea6dfe5700fcd6_0/about). Storm surge and flood data

obtained from the University of Florida’s GeoPlan Center (https://sls.geoplan.ufl.edu/viewer/).

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

County-Level EVSE Projections

This portion of the analysis is specific to EVs. NREL’s EVI-Pro tool provides projections of the

number of EVSE ports needed at the county level for 2030, 2040, and 2050 (per Section 6).

These projections are further broken down into public and private needs, as well as by EV

charger type/level. This analysis uses the 2030 EVSE projections for public DCFCs. The details

for how these projections are calculated are addressed in the EVI-Pro section (Section 6).

Other Data Sets Considered

In addition to the data sets previously described, other data sets were considered for the analysis

but ultimately not included as part of the methodology. We describe them for the benefit of

future analyses. The first is grid reliability data from various Florida utility companies. These

data are provided in the form of System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI) values

from the five publicly owned utility companies in Florida: Duke Energy, Florida Power and

Light, Florida Public Utility Company, Gulf Power Company, and Tampa Electric Company.

However, the data from the companies varied dramatically in quality, resolution, and coverage.

Not all locations in Florida were covered by these zones, and there is overlap between some

zones. Additionally, the siting of new station locations assumed availability of temporary

electricity at designated shelters via generator or solar, so the SAIDI value for a shelter’s location

was deemed uncritical. For these reasons, these data were not considered consistent enough to

factor as part of the EV analysis. Appendix A displays these SAIDI data for reference.

The second data set—the output results from the Florida Electric Vehicle Roadmap report (Burk

et al. 2020)—were reviewed and considered for this analysis. However, that work was focused

predominantly on broader EVSE implementation, without direct focus on such implementation

with flood events in mind. As such, the methods from that report were used to inform the

analysis, but the data were not a direct input for this work’s methodology.

Future Infrastructure Identification Methods

This analysis has two primary objectives with two corresponding methodologies. The first

objective is to identify possible locations for new fueling stations to better build Florida’s AFV

fueling network along evacuation routes. The second objective, specific to EVs, is to address

how the current EVSE infrastructure compares to the needs shown in EVI-Pro’s model for 2030.

A multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) pipeline is used to narrow down the input data sets to

more discrete spatial locations of possible stations, as well as to limit the current EVSE based on

whether a station is within a flood zone, for comparison with 2030 EVSE projection needs from

EVI-Pro. The flowchart in Appendix B shows the generalized MCDA algorithm, and the

subsequent chart in Appendix C shows the process for EVs with the added steps for calculating

the EVSE needs based on the EVI-Pro output. The steps of the MCDA workflow are expanded

upon in the following subsections in terms of the data flow of the core inputs.

Stations and Fleets

Subsets of the station and fleet layers were created for each AFV type. To identify stations that

are at risk during a flooding event, these layers were intersected with the flood zone and storm

surge zone layers. This resulted in flood-safe and flood-risk station layers that were used in

different phases of the model.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Next, driving distance service areas were generated for each fuel type. This was done by using

the flood-safe stations and fleets as facilities in a network analysis algorithm to generate service

areas for the stations based on driving distance. The service areas for each AFV type were

generated using distance thresholds rather than travel time because the model is focused on AFV

infrastructure connectivity and is not concerned with traffic volume. The distance thresholds are

150 miles between propane and CNG stations and 50 miles between DCFC and Level 2 EV

stations, derived from those used by the FHWA’s Alternative Fuel Corridors program. The

ranges of modern CNG, propane, and electric vehicles may be considerably longer than these

thresholds, but the conservative approach to utilize the distance thresholds established by FHWA

was used for this analysis in order to account for the potential for older, lower-range models to

operate with auxiliary loads in a variety of temperatures and road grades. The resulting service

areas (also called isochrones) from the algorithm represent the places AFV drivers can reliably

navigate to flood-safe fueling stations. Figure 23 shows the resulting Level 2 EVSE potential

areas as an example.

Figure 23. Level 2 EVSE and related 50-mile radius EV service map

Evacuation Routes

The designated evacuation routes in Florida were used as the core network for escaping a

hurricane or flood in Florida. They are assumed to be structurally secure for utilization during a

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flooding event by virtue of their designation as emergency evacuation routes. They also provide

adequate coverage in each county. A 1-mile buffer was created around the evacuation routes.

This buffer area is assumed to be close enough to the route to be able to fuel a vehicle quickly

without going too far from the main road, potentially driving back into inundated areas. Flood-

safe AFV stations within these buffers were extracted and used as the stations for the

aforementioned service area isochrone generation.

Next, the evacuation route buffers were clipped by the flood-safe service areas for each AFV

type based on AFV range. These resulting areas are deemed the potential areas of new AFV

station installation due to their proximity to the evacuation routes but exclusion from the service

area of current AFV stations. Figure 24 shows an example of this result for propane vehicles.

Figure 24. Propane vehicle vulnerability map

Evacuation Shelters

Evacuation shelter locations were used in this analysis as potential locations for new AFV

infrastructure installation. This is due to their presumed security from flooding, transportation

needs, and grid connectivity or emergency electrical capability. They are also already ingrained

in the Florida emergency management system and would therefore likely be easy to track and

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monitor by emergency managers. The emergency shelter locations that intersect with the

modeled AFV infrastructure potential areas near evacuation routes were extracted and used as

the final output map layer for new possible flood-secure AFV station locations.

To determine how the potential locations would strengthen the evacuation route network for

AFV travel, the modeled stations were added as new facilities in the original service area

process, and then a new service area was generated with the merged stations. This service area

and the original service area layer were each used to clip the evacuation routes layer. These two

resulting service areas were used to determine the percentage of the evacuation route gaps that

can potentially be filled with new stations, as indicated by the cross-hatched areas in Figure 25.

Key Findings of GIS Analysis

The results from this analysis highlight the state of Florida’s strong potential to build out the

AFV refueling networks along evacuation routes. After removing stations that are at risk of

flooding, the percentage of the evacuation routes that are covered by each of the AFV service

areas averaged to 87.6%. However, after integrating the new station location possibilities, the

coverage increased to an average of 99.0%. Table 5 shows the coverage broken down by each

alternative fuel type. Figure 25 shows the results of the model for CNG stations.

Table 5. AFV Corridor Coverage Change with Proposed New Stations

Fuel Type Current Evacuation Route Coverage

Without Flood-Prone Stations

Evacuation Route Coverage

With Proposed New Stations

DC Fast (EV) 85.9% 98.2%

Level 2 (EV) 85.3% 98.7%

Propane 84.2% 99.5%

CNG 95.1% 99.

Note: For new station locations, visit the web tool listed at the end of this section.

The EVI-Pro projections for needed EVSE were generated and mapped at the county level. From

there, the current DCFC stations were spatially joined to the county layer. This spatial join adds a

count of stations and a sum of their ports to each county. Calculations were done to determine

each county’s progress toward EVI-Pro’s 2030 predictions.

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Figure 25. Best new CNG station locations identified by the analysis

The other key result from this work is each Florida county’s progress toward the 2030 DCFC

plug count needs based on the EVI-Pro results. These values are displayed as their total port

count toward meeting those goals in Figure 26.

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Figure 26. Number of DCFC Ports Required to Meet 2030 Goals

The map in Figure 26 highlights varying progress toward meeting the 2030 goals for DCFC

ports. Several of the more populated counties needed over 200 stations to meet their goals, and

other counties were at or near their 2030 targets. Table 6 provides the values of current and

future DCFC plug counts for each county.

Table 6. Current and Modeled DCFC Port Counts by Florida County

County Current DCFC Port Count 2030 Port Count Target

Brevard 7 195

Columbia 2 11

Gadsden 0 7

Jefferson 0 3

Leon 5 90

Orange 16 443

Putnam 1 12

Seminole 5 148

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County Current DCFC Port Count 2030 Port Count Target

Taylor 2 2

Washington 1 3.

Citrus 2 50

Escambia 2 70

Gilchrist 0 3

Hamilton 0 1

Lee 4 207

Liberty 0 1

Miami-Dade 28 427

Okeechobee 11 5

Osceola 9 84

Madison 0 2

Santa Rosa 0 45

Marion 2 96

Gulf 0 3

Suwannee 1 7

Lake 7 115

Pinellas 14 280

Dixie 0 2

Nassau 0 26

Bradford 0 4

Flagler 1 39

Holmes 0 2

Monroe 4 31

St. Johns 5 108

St. Lucie 4 75

Sarasota 3 177

Alachua 2 102

Broward 17 484

Charlotte 4 58

Collier 4 123

Hendry 4 4

Indian River 2 49

Jackson 1 7

Lafayette 0 0

Manatee 1 123

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County Current DCFC Port Count 2030 Port Count Target

Palm Beach 13 465

Clay 0 51

Hardee 0 2

Levy 0 8

Bay 2 42

Okaloosa 1 56

Baker 0 3

Pasco 6 132

Glades 0 2

Martin 1 56

Highlands 5 25

Volusia 11 141

Duval 15 207

Walton 1 26

Hernando 0 49

Sumter 3 64

Union 0 1

Calhoun 0 2

Hillsborough 11 346

Franklin 1 3

Wakulla 0 7

Polk 9 147

DeSoto 0 0

The resulting spatial layers from this analysis were compiled and shared as a web map tool,

which was made available for the local emergency managers in Florida to use in their alternative

fuel resilience plans.

More supplementary information for the web map is available on the

homepage.

The following section provides an example of how one might use this tool to

identify possible locations for a new AFV station.

Florida Alternative Fuel Resilience Web Map Local Usage Example

The result of this analysis is the Florida Alternative Fuel Resilience web map on ArcGIS Online:

an interactive web map that emergency management practitioners can utilize for making

alternative fuel resilience plans in their counties. The results shown in the previous section

indicate some counties may be further along in the infrastructure rollout than others. This section

https://nrel.maps.arcgis.com/apps/mapviewer/index.html?webmap=70d980d59f39453387d8286fcb505ae1

https://nrel.maps.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=70d980d59f39453387d8286fcb505ae1

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

provides an example of how one could utilize the web map tool for DCFC implementation in

Dixie County.

When navigating the app, users can interact with the map and sidebar items—as is typical with

interactive web maps. Users can click on stations or shelters to gather more information about

the location. This can be used to get contact information for a current station or location

information about a shelter as a potential installation location, as shown in Figure 27.

Figure 27. Resilience web map features while planning EV resilience in Dixie County

Additionally, the areas of potential EVSE siting based on proximity to the emergency road

network were included in the application. In addition to all the data layers outlined above, users

have the ability to upload data for other facilities that they are considering for station siting, or if

they know the areas for temporary charger placement for further on-site research as part of their

plan. By clicking the “Add” button, users can add their own location data from several format

options, as shown in Figure 28.

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Figure 28. Example of the ability to add new data to the resilience web map

The example in Figure 29 shows the addition of a Florida natural gas station data set from

ArcGIS Online. The new stations on the map can then be further selected to see the station

attributes so that the user may discern further potential in these added stations.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure 29. Example use case after adding gasoline station data to the resilience web map

The example in this section shows a brief typical usage of the Florida Alternative Fuel Resilience

web map. From here, the user can proceed with whatever necessary steps are next (e.g., site

evaluation) to determine which of the locations identified in this map can be used for a new

alternative fuel station. Additionally, ArcGIS Online has the capability to interface with other

web map layers or web tools that the local GIS practitioners in Florida can also utilize as they see

fit.

Comparison to Florida’s EV Roadmap and EV Master Plan

Two other Florida-based alternative fuel plans were in development in tandem with NREL’s

Florida Alternative Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan: the Florida Electric Vehicle Roadmap

from the Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services (Burk et al. 2020) and the EV

Infrastructure Master Plan from FDOT (FDOT 2021). Each of these three plans addresses fuel

resilience to some degree, so it is important to identify the distinguishing factors between them.

First, both of the other projects focus exclusively on electric vehicles, whereas this project

addresses CNG and propane vehicles in addition to EVs. Secondly, the other plans focused on

EV infrastructure broadly for the state of Florida with small subsections regarding resilience,

whereas this report focuses centrally on resilience.

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When comparing the resilience aspects of each of these three reports, each adds value by

approaching the question with different methods and applications of input data, all while

adhering to similar MCDA workflows. The Florida Electric Vehicle Roadmap approached the

problem by incorporating land use and demographic data, such as employment locations, in

conjunction with EV adoption projects and current infrastructure. This project also identifies

near-term temporary station locations that serve rural areas and bolster key corridors. The EV

Infrastructure Master Plan has a more demand-focused approach to identify gaps for DCFCs

along the state highway system. The key difference in this methodology is the utilization of

traffic data and a focus on drive time to identify priority locations for DC fast stations along the

state highway system. The distinguishing factor of this project’s methodology behind the

development of the web mapping tool is a focus on spatial network connectivity of Florida’s

evacuation routes, and filling gaps within that network regardless of normal traffic demand or

local demographics. This methodology was created under the assumption that although the state

highway system and the emergency evacuation routes often overlap, travel demand would likely

dramatically shift during a flooding event. However, normal demand was considered under the

EVI-Pro section as it relates to county-level projections, but this aspect of the project is separate

from the specific resilience-related station siting.

GIS Summary

This section introduces the data, methods, and resulting web map tool of the Florida alternative

fuel resilience project. The analysis uses an MCDA spatial analysis approach that identifies areas

along Florida’s emergency evacuation routes that are vulnerable to flood or storm surge events

for each fuel type including propane, CNG, DCFC EV, and Level 2 EV. After using emergency

shelter location data to fill in the vulnerable areas, it was found that using just these locations

could increase the evacuation route corridor coverage from 87.6% to 99.0% across all alternative

fuel types.

The analysis in this section showed strong potential for bolstering Florida’s alternative fuel

infrastructure along emergency routes by inclusion of emergency shelters alone as possible

locations for new AFV stations. These results, however, were based on baseline assumptions

about the vulnerability of current stations based on overlap with flood zones and a lack of other

data for new station options for each county. Local officials will have a better understanding of

local geography, government programs, and other factors that might allow them to identify better

locations for new stations. These local officials can then import their own data into the Florida

Alternative Fuel Resilience web tool for more refined analyses based on their local expertise.

The objective of this analysis was ultimately to identify a pathway for completing alternative fuel

corridors along Florida’s emergency evacuation routes for both evacuations and emergency

operations. However, it did not factor travel demand or load for the alternative fuel stations.

Future iterations of this work might include more of this type of data to determine where stations

should be installed from both a spatial and travel demand perspective. Lastly, this analysis was

generalized to the entire state of Florida, but storms and flood events impact different parts of the

state and affect the emergency management system dynamically. A case study incorporating the

results of this analysis using data from a historical flood event could better refine the

methodology of this analysis and provide further direction on broadening this analysis to be more

impactful.

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8 Laws, Regulations and Organizations Relevant to

Resilience Planning

This Alternative Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan must complement other actions that the

state of Florida and local governments have taken to prepare for natural disasters and improve

resilience. It must utilize existing laws and regulations, leverage the work of regional planning

councils, and build upon work done by the state government.

Relevant Laws and Regulations

The peninsular geography of Florida requires planning officials to incorporate resilience goals

into planning documents for a variety of natural hazard scenarios. The State Comprehensive Plan

provides long-range policy guidance for the orderly management of state growth (Section

187.101(1), F.S.), while local governments are required to adopt local comprehensive plans to

manage future growth of their localities (Section 163.3167(2), F.S.). Local development must

conform to the local Plan’s provisions,

which may include provisions to better utilize

alternative fuel vehicles for hurricane-related evacuation, emergency, and recovery operations.

Local comprehensive plans must include principles, guidelines, standards, and strategies for

orderly and balanced future land development, which reflect community commitments to

implement these plans (Section 163.3177(1), F.S.) and identify procedures for monitoring,

evaluating, and appraising implementation (Section 163.3177(1)(d), F.S.). Mandatory elements

of these plans include the following:

• Capital improvements (Section 163.3177(3)(a), F.S.);

• Future land use plan (Section 163.3177(3)(a), F.S.);

• Intergovernmental coordination (Section 163.3177(3)(h), F.S.);

• Conservation (Section 163.3177(3)(d), F.S.);

• Transportation (Section 163.3177(3)(b), F.S.);

• Sanitary sewer, solid waste, drainage, potable water, and aquifer recharge (Section

163.3177(3)(c), F.S.);

• Recreation and open space (Section 163.3177(3)(e), F.S.);

• Housing (Section 163.3177(3)(f), F.S.); and

• Coastal management (Section 163.3177(3)(g), F.S.).

Regional Planning Councils

In 1980, the Florida Legislature passed the Florida Regional Planning Council Act, finding that

“there is a need for regional planning agencies to assist local governments to resolve their

common problems, engage in areawide comprehensive and functional planning, administer

For a discussion of the requirement that Florida localities maintain comprehensive plans informed by an analysis

of “relevant and appropriate data,” see David L. Markell, Emerging Legal and Institutional Responses to Sea-Level

Rise in Florida and Beyond, 42 Colum. J. Envtl. L. 1, 23–26 (2016).

In their local government land development regulations, counties and municipalities must include a provision for

“Ensuring safe and convenient onsite traffic flow, considering needed vehicle parking.” Section 163.3202(2)(h), F.S.

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certain federal and state grants-in aid, and provide a regional focus in regard to multiple

programs undertaken on an areawide basis.” (Section 186.502(1)(b), F.S.)

The state’s 10 regional planning councils (RPCs) have “a duty to assist local governments with

activities designed to promote and facilitate economic development in the geographic area

covered by the council.” (Section 186.502(5), F.S.). Additionally, RPCs have a duty “to

cooperate, in the exercise of its planning functions, with federal and state agencies in planning

for emergency management,” (Section 186.505, F.S.) which they have historically fulfilled by

conducting regional evacuation studies to assist county emergency management departments as

they develop operational evacuation plans.

Resilient Florida

The FDEP Office of Resilience and Coastal Protection offers technical assistance and funding to

communities dealing with coastal flooding, erosion, and ecosystem changes through various

programs related to coastal issues. The Coastal Construction Control Line Program

(https://floridadep.gov/rcp/fcmp) and the Florida Resilient Coastlines Program

(https://floridadep.gov/rcp/florida-resilient-coastlines-program) prepare coastal communities and

habitats for the effects of sea level rise.

An additional resource is the Florida Adaptation Planning Guidebook, made available by FDEP

for use by local governments to develop and update adaptation plans for sea level rise (FDEP

2018. The adaptation planning process outlined in the guidebook is intended to be used by local

government planners in cities and counties of any size, especially as they identify adaptation

strategies and prioritize adaptation needs, which may include protection, accommodation, retreat,

and avoidance strategies.

Functions of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer

Services

The first laws governing the sale of propane (termed “liquefied petroleum gas”) were enacted by

Florida’s legislature in 1947 in order to provide the industry with uniform regulation of products

in the state. The original law was contained in Chapter 526, Florida Statutes, and entitled “Sale

of Liquid Fuels.” In 1961, Chapter 527, Florida Statutes, was created to govern the safe storage,

transportation, sale, and use of propane in Florida.

Personnel from FDACS’s Division of Consumer Services perform functions such as weighing

and measuring device inspections and motor fuel testing.

The Bureau of Compliance is

currently responsible for licensing, examinations and training. The Bureau of Standards (bureau)

is responsible for the administration and enforcement of Chapter 527 of the Florida Statutes and

rules promulgated in accordance with that chapter. These laws and rules, and the national safety

codes adopted therein, afford the bureau broad enforcement powers over all propane activities

within Florida. The bureau’s public responsibility for propane safety begins when the product

enters the state's borders and continues until the product is safely consumed by the public.

FDACS, Division of Consumer Services, “Liquified Petroleum Gas Laws and Rules” (Oct. 2020 Edition),

available at: https://www.fdacs.gov/content/download/73844/file/Florida-Laws-and-Rules-Guide.pdf

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Additionally, FDACS enforces the following rules, standards, and regulations: Rule Chapter 5J-

20, Florida Administrative Code, which adopts NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code; NFPA

54, National Fuel Gas Code; NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems;

and Title 49, Parts 191-192 and 199, Code of Federal Regulations. These laws, codes, rules, and

regulations require the bureau to inspect any site within Florida where propane is stored

(including bulk plants, dispensing units, bulk storage sites, trucks, etc.), and authorize the bureau

to perform certain duties. These duties include investigating all propane-related accidents,

licensing all propane activities in this state, and training and administer competency

examinations to industry personnel. These licensing, inspection, investigation, and training

activities enable the department to ensure that only competent persons engage in LP gas business

activities and that compliance with acceptable safety codes and standards is achieved statewide.

9 Vehicles in Standing Water

To better understand what issues real-world fleets are dealing with when it comes to flooding

and high-water conditions, NREL performed a literature review and had multiple discussions

with fleets in hurricane- and flooding-prone areas of the country. The goal of these discussions

was to learn specifics about any history with vehicles in high-water conditions, including what

vehicles they use in these situations (if any) and why they may or may not fare better than other

vehicles in the fleet. NREL also wanted to identify if any vehicles were specifically purchased

because of their abilities in high water, or if any modifications were made to existing vehicles in

the fleet to allow them to operate better in standing water. Finally, we discussed alternative fuel

vehicle use in the fleet, including any plans for incorporating alternative fuels in the future and

the impact on the fleet’s capabilities to drive through standing water.

The following subsections discuss key findings from the literature search and fleet interviews,

including components of high-water-capable vehicles, fleet-preferred high-water vehicles, and

the feasibility of alternative fuel use in these fleets.

Important Components of High-Water-Capable Vehicles

In the literature review (Appendix F), NREL identified common damage to vehicles that have

been through high-water conditions, including damage to engines and transmissions, electrical

components, and vehicle interiors. Some of these occur immediately, leaving vehicles stranded,

and others set in later after the vehicle has performed its emergency mission. Subsequently,

NREL’s discussions with fleets reinforced many of the findings of the literature review, as

discussed here and summarized in Figure 30.

First, fleets with vehicles using any kind of combustion (including diesel, CNG, and propane)

must consider how high the vehicles’ engine air intake systems are to ensure the engines do not

stall. If enough water entered the air intake system, the engine would stall immediately, thus

leaving the vehicle inoperable. Second, electrical components are part of the car that can sustain

substantial damage from flooding (Scott 2020). Most electrical components are sealed to be

water-resistant and can handle water for short periods of time. However, submersion is a

potential cause of failure during these situations because wires can short and saltwater will cause

corrosion in the longer term. One of the propane school bus fleet managers that was interviewed

pointed to transmission control modules as being one of the lowest electronic devices that was

not waterproof.

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Third, fleets must ensure that other air intakes or vents are prepared to avoid or withstand water

intrusion. To do this, it is important to remotely mount the transmission and differential vent tube

separate from the components at the highest points possible. This will allow for the vehicle to

operate longer while in high-water situations. Another important consideration is the automatic

transmission vent; the automatic transmission needs fluid to stay in a viscous state for it to

operate properly. If water were to be introduced into this fluid, it would lower its effectiveness

and even possibly prevent it from operating. The cabin air system also has air intakes that are a

point of vulnerability. This intake is higher than the engine’s air intake system or transmission

vent and doesn’t lead to engine stall or transmission seizure but is still detrimental to the

operability of the vehicle.

While air intakes and vents are the most vulnerable to water intrusion, other components are

vulnerable to slower seepage. The differential, which is a set of gears that sits beneath the vehicle

and transmits engine power to the wheels, is one such component. While water in the differential

is not ideal, it could operate for some amount of time if water seeped into the drive axle housing.

The differential operates with gears meshing with gears, and its fluid mechanism allows for both

lubrication and cooling. Therefore, it can tolerate water intrusion for some period before failure.

That said, it is important to ensure that all vehicle components are protected in the case of a high-

water situation to safely operate the vehicle.

Another key consideration is vehicle buoyancy. A fleet may have taken all the precautions to

prevent water from entering key operating components, but the vehicle may still have the

potential of being swept away in high water. Typical passenger vehicles can begin to float in less

than 2 feet of water. Buoyancy liftoff occurs later (deeper) in vehicles with higher clearance,

greater mass, smaller footprint, and better tire traction. It occurs earlier (shallower) if the water is

flowing quickly. However, it should be kept in mind that vehicles with greater mass tend to be

less efficient and spend limited fuel reserves more quickly.

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Figure 30. Medium-duty vehicle and its points of vulnerability to standing water.

Source: Josh Bauer, NREL

Electric Vehicles and Flooding

Electric vehicles are the only vehicles that do not require oxygen to operate. This has enabled the

EV company Rivian to claim in the specifications of their R1S and R1T than these vehicles can

drive through 43 inches of standing water.

However, this capability has not yet been enshrined

in their warranty. Likewise, Dannar claims that its electric offroad work vehicles can operate in

up to 4 feet of water.

According to an article in Green Car Reports (Evarts 2018), all-electric

vehicles typically have waterproof parts, such as the battery, traction motor, or inverter. In

addition, battery cells are generally sealed and watertight. Therefore, the most important parts of

the vehicle on an EV are typically less susceptible to water damage. However, the waterproofing

generally cannot be trusted if the battery is fully submerged in standing water—particularly salt

water. If that is the case, it is more likely that there will be damage done to the battery and

possibly fires. Evarts also notes that it is possible for larger battery packs and wiring to become

waterlogged and damaged in some EVs during flooding. Other than engines and transmissions,

EVs are generally susceptible to the same water damage already discussed.

High-Water Fleet Experiences

For many of the fleets that NREL spoke with, vehicle ground clearance was one of their main

considerations. The best high-water vehicles have good ground clearance. This higher ground

clearance raises the height of most of the vulnerable components previously mentioned. It also

will allow for the water to pass under the vehicle, allowing the weight of the vehicle to keep it

https://rivian.com/support/article/what-is-the-water-fording-height

https://www.dannar.us.com/

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from losing contact with the road surface. Many fleets indicated that they would choose vehicles

that were considered 1 ton or more to indicate a ground clearance and weight that would enable

the tires to stay on the ground.

For example, the city of Tampa chose several Fords for this purpose. Specifically, they chose F-

350 or larger (3500 series or larger in General Motors or Ram). Tampa also installed tires taller

than stock. Doing this allows them to go into higher water than they would be able to with a

standard pickup truck. Tampa also chose to make some of their heavier equipment, like their

Class 6–8 vehicles, capable of multiple uses. For example, vehicles that might be used for street

repair or other service applications could be used in high-water situations if need be. These

vehicles typically have higher air intake systems, with the transmission and differential vents

already relocated when the trucks have their body upfits completed. It is important to note that

these vehicles could run on a variety of fuels, but in most cases, they were either diesel or

gasoline. There are also options for natural gas in these applications, which have sealed fuel

systems without vulnerable vapor recovery systems.

During discussions with multiple fleets, NREL found that many of them, such as Hillsborough

County, rely on special equipment ordered for their fire departments for just these types of

situations. It was not uncommon to find that they had a few special-purpose vehicles that could

help in high-water situations. They also rely on different types of watercrafts that can be

deployed when the water surpasses a certain level. The key is to not become part of the problem

themselves by requiring rescue. Safety is always paramount.

NREL also spoke with the Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC) and discussed how

they handle their fleet when the water rises in their area. MUSC’s first building was built in

1829; since then, the university has grown into a much larger campus. The university is built in

an area that is prone to flooding, which has forced the staff to investigate creative ways to move

its staff between buildings. One of these ways is the use of a simple dinghy, a small boat, that

can move staff from building to building during flood conditions. The boats are not powered, so

they are typically walked through the water by guides on each side. This can be done if the water

is not much more than 2 feet in depth and the undercurrent is what they would consider

acceptable to move staff safely.

Another way MUSC moves staff is with a Light Medium Tactical Vehicle (LMTV) truck. These

are vehicles originally used by the military for standard operations. They have two of these

vehicles. One is an H1 Hummer made by AM General, and the other is a Stevenson M1079

LMTV 4x4 that they acquired when they were ready to be cycled out of the military system.

When military vehicles are ready to be cycled out, the military typically gives local jurisdictions

an opportunity to receive these vehicles as a donation. MUSC repurposed the vehicles to be able

to transport staff from building to building when flooding occurs. These work well when the

water is too deep to use safely.

Municipalities and governmental jurisdictions are responsible for the health and safety of their

communities. After multiple discussions with various municipalities and governmental

jurisdictions, it became clear that the primary focus of these fleets is to move citizens and

vehicles away from the possible affected area before the storm surge arrives. This proactive

measure is the best way to ensure vehicle and citizen safety in the case where waters rise very

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quickly. NREL also found that local governments work with their respective school districts to

utilize their school bus fleets to move large numbers of people in a short period of time to safe

locations. School buses typically operate on diesel, with the option for propane and electric

becoming more common. School uses are ideal with their closed fuel systems, as described in the

following section.

High-Water Vehicle Conclusions and Recommendations

As discussed in this section and in Appendix F, most designated high-water vehicles have good

ground clearance to allow for the water to pass under the vehicle, allowing the weight of the

vehicle to keep it from losing contact with the road surface. Higher-ground-clearance vehicles

also keep the vulnerable components farther off the ground and safer from water damage.

Therefore, for fleets looking to incorporate high-water-capable vehicles into their fleets, we

recommend identifying vehicles that have good ground clearance and have their components as

high off the ground as possible. Some examples discussed here include the Ford F-350 and

LMTV trucks.

For fleets looking to incorporate alternative fuels, AFVs may be a good option for use during

high-water situations. This is because, for example, vehicles that are powered by propane or

natural gas have completely sealed fuel systems. Therefore, at no point would water be allowed

to infiltrate the fuel system until it is combined with air in the combustion chamber. In addition,

natural gas and propane vehicles do not require a vapor recovery system, which is prone to water

damage for conventionally fueled vehicles, and thus would not be a concern for high water.

Not only are alternative-fueled vehicles themselves possibly more reliable during high water, but

it is also important to note that alternative fueling stations can be designed with backup

generation to provide power during times where the standard power sources are interrupted. For

example, natural gas stations can utilize natural gas compressors to power the sites without

interruption in the case of a power outage.

As discussed in Appendix F, EVs are the only vehicles that do not require air intake to operate.

Therefore, the most important parts on an EV are typically less susceptible to water damage.

Some EV manufacturers, such as Rivian and Dannar, advertise that their vehicles are capable of

crossing high water without damage to the vehicle. Rivian notes a water fording height of up to

43 inches in some of their vehicle models, whereas Dannar states that their work vehicles can

operate in up to 4 feet of water. However, before taking any EV through standing water, both the

vehicle warranty and the owner’s manual should be consulted. In some cases, driving a vehicle

through standing water may void the vehicle warranty. Furthermore, corrosion from extended

periods of submersion in saltwater can result in EV auto-ignition. This resulted in 11 EVs

burning after Hurricane Ian (Weise 2022), accelerating research into the impact that extended

periods of saltwater submersion has on EVs.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

10 Conclusions and Recommendations

Diversifying transportation fuels to include natural gas, propane, and electricity can improve

transportation resilience in the face of hurricanes in Florida. The FDACS, NREL, and the

University of South Florida have come together to develop this Alternative Transportation Fuel

Resilience Plan so that Florida can take the necessary steps to be ready to utilize their AFVs in

evacuation and recovery operations. All three organizations reached out to key stakeholders and

convened a workshop to better understand the needs and challenges of transportation during

hurricanes.

Communication is a problem for transportation operations during hurricanes—a problem that the

reduced number of refueling stations exacerbates. To alleviate this problem, NREL created a

web tool that provides fleet managers with key resilience preparation information, including the

compatibility of refueling stations to their vehicles and emergency contact information. Since

EVs are projected to increase quickly in Florida, NREL ran EVI-Pro to determine the EVSE

needs in 2030 and 2050. By 2030, Florida is expected to need 45,485 nonresidential charging

stations, with 54% being work L2, 34% public L2, and 12% DCFC. Broward County will need

the most charging stations and Lafayette will need the fewest.

Utilizing alternative fuels for evacuation and emergency purposes requires geographical logistics

and planning. NREL performed a GIS analysis to determine which corridor (key to connectivity)

stations are likely to be inundated during a hurricane and where new stations could be located to

improve that connectivity. One strategy the analysis pursued was placing alternative fueling

stations at emergency evacuation shelters, since these are in relatively safe areas and they are

central to much of the evacuation and essential supply transportation. This analysis found that

statewide, placing stations at shelters could increase the evacuation route corridor coverage from

87.6% to 99.0% across all alternative fuel types. The highest value of the GIS tool is using it at

the local level with specific fuel types and scenarios. Therefore, NREL made the GIS tool

available to the public and used the tool to run a case study of Dixie County to show how to use

it.

One of the main vulnerabilities that vehicles have to hurricanes is standing water. Through a

literature search and fleet interviews, NREL assessed the vehicle components that are vulnerable

to standing water, categorized the severity of this vulnerability, and charted them based on

relative height. NREL also highlighted differences between AFVs and preparations that can be

taken to enable vehicles to withstand greater depths of standing water.

The Florida Alternative Transportation Fuel Resilience Plan lays a pathway for resilience and

emergency planners to strategically bolster their alternative fueling infrastructure and fleets so

they can be ready to provide evacuation, emergency, and recovery operations during future

hurricanes. Many of the preparations outlined in this plan can be transferred to other states or

regions of the world, and similar tools can be developed for other regions. Furthermore, many of

the general strategies can be adapted to be helpful in the face of other disasters such as floods,

forest fires, or freezing stretches due to the polar vortex.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

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Appendix A. SAIDI Zone Data Provided to NREL

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Appendix B. Site Visit Summaries

Waste Pro Facility and CNG Fueling Site

Waste Pro’s conversion to CNG began in 2016 with the construction and installation of CNG

stations at the Sanford and Sarasota Waste Pro facilities, and was fully operational by 2017.

The Sanford CNG station can accommodate fueling a maximum of 110 CNG refuse trucks, but

as of the writing this report, Waste Pro has a fleet of 48 CNG haulers and 20 diesel refuse trucks

(capable of handling 16 tons of garbage). Florida Utility (Infinite Energy) supplies natural gas to

support Waste Pro’s fueling system, and Waste Pro receives 120,000 gallons of diesel fuel

delivered daily from Lynch Oil to fuel the diesel refuse haulers, which are fueled nightly.

Although Waste Pro does not store diesel on-site, they do have on-site fueling.

The Waste Pro CNG fueling system has two 250-horsepower Clean Energy compressors that

pressurize Waste Pro’s CNG at a higher rate compared to rates that similar fleets use, but there

are lower-pressure options. Waste Pro receives natural gas at 100 psi from the natural gas service

line (Infinite Energy) and compresses it to slightly above 3,800 psi. CNG is delivered at 3,800

psi to the fueling nozzles.

The city of Sanford provided the land for building the CNG station, and Clean Energy built and

also maintains the CNG fueling infrastructure. To construct the CNG fueling system, Waste Pro

bored under the ground fuel lines. Harland Chadbourne, Director of Purchasing for Waste Pro,

noted that Waste Pro prefers the aboveground infrastructure (e.g., pipeline) because it can be cut

and reconfigured as needed. The fueling hosts (gas lines fueling the trucks) comprise 20–25-foot

hoses. There are 80 dual-fuel fueling hookups to fuel the trucks parked in the lot. The dual-fuel

posts can be changed to quad if needed. It was noted that there is a gas line as well as electrical

to power the fueling equipment.

For Waste Pro’s needs, time-fill was the best option for refueling at the Sanford facility, though

Waste Pro does operate fast-fill stations at other locations. Considering the Waste Pro trucks are

typically within 30 minutes of the main fueling depot in their service territory, it is not necessary

to fuel outside of the Sanford station unless there are extenuating circumstances (e.g., fuel supply

is disrupted or the truck travels outside of the service territory). Waste Pro is able to do a quick

fuel-up of the trucks if needed. While the Sanford station is time-fill, it is capable of also doing a

fast fill (but not all vehicles are able to be fast-filled at the same time). Waste Pro can

accommodate a fast fill for 1–2 trucks, but if many trucks are filling at the same time, it will not

be able to fill quickly. Fast-fill usually takes 15–20 minutes. Drivers usually look at tank

pressure to determine fill status of the tank (and do not have to rely on vehicle gauges, which can

be inaccurate). A pressure of 3,800 psi means a full tank, 1,200 psi is 1/4 of a tank, and 600 psi is

close to empty engine stall. To obtain access to fueling, each truck has a barcode.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure B-1. Gauge above 400 psi at WastePro.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

The CNG rear haulers have dual nozzles, which can accommodate a quick charge of up to 3,800

psi. Waste Pro operates purpose-built Cummins 6-cylinder, 10.7-liter engine refuse haulers,

which are the same size as the diesel trucks.

Fuel redundancy is an important strategy for Waste Pro. There needs to be redundancy so one

pump is able to rest while the other pump is working. In terms of backup power, the Sanford

facility has a diesel generator (140 kW) that can potentially operate for up to a week with its

1,000-gallon diesel storage. In the past, Waste Pro ran the diesel generator for 2 days nonstop.

The only natural gas interruption that Waste Pro experienced in the past was when a gas line

ruptured in Sanford that disrupted supply to the station for 2 days.

When evaluating the payback period on CNG, Waste Pro determined that there is approximately

a 5–6-year payback period on CNG and found that if a fleet has 50 or more trucks and requires

200,000+ gallons of fuel per year, it makes economic sense to have a bulk diesel or CNG station

instead of receiving daily fuel deliveries. Waste Pro plans to continue integrating on-site diesel

tanks and CNG fueling.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure B-2. Natural gas line service inlet at 100 psi.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

Regarding maintenance, Waste Pro is contracted with a third party to conduct inspections of the

CNG tanks. There are three different maintenance bays on property. The refuse trucks have

methane detectors both in the truck and in the maintenance bays. Waste Pro conducts its own

driver training through a 4-day course.

Although Waste Pro has not experienced flooding with past hurricanes, there have been instances

when the CNG supply was impacted. Waste Pro has a mobile tank and rescue truck capable of

filling a quarter tank of diesel to get the truck back to the yard. The mobile tank is charged at the

fueling facility. There are capabilities for sharing fueling. Since the air intake is located high on

the refuse trucks, they can handle standing water up to the windows (though this would not be

recommended). Waste Pro is considered an essential service and has fueling capabilities.

The overall cost of the Sanford CNG station was $1.5–$1.7 million. Waste Pro pays for this in

the price of the CNG gallon of gasoline equivalent. The diesel-powered backup generator cost

approximately $70,000-$150,000. Clean Energy offers finance deals when you pay for station

construction in terms of the price of the gallon. Harland also mentioned that cities can have deals

in place beforehand to reduce capital costs. The payback is usually 5–7 years. Diesel and CNG

refuse haulers can cost anywhere in a range of $350,000 to $400,000, whereas electric refuse

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

trucks are approximately $700,000–$750,000. At this price point, electric trucks are hard to

justify at this time, and there is barrier to entry because of the capital costs required to invest in

electric refuse haulers.

Waste Pro is considering renewable natural gas and will be signing their first such contract.

Seminole County Schools

Seminole County Schools (“Seminole”) began adopting propane (LPG) in 2015. There are two

county school-owned facilities: the Midway Transportation Complex and the Winter Springs

Transportation Compound. Seminole County Schools run approximately 140 school buses at the

Midway Transportation Complex and 310 school buses at the Winter Springs Compound.

Approximately 30% of the fleet are propane-powered (the rest are diesel). Seminole’s goal is to

have 75% of the fleet transitioned to propane. The Midway facility is the primary fueling station.

They have two 1,000-gallon propane tanks (owned by AmeriGas) that includes one dispenser

and two hoses with euro nozzles (Strobli nozzles) to perform propane fueling. The LPG school

buses are fueled once or twice per day. Seminole County Schools finds they get approximately

4–5 miles per gallon on the propane school buses. They estimate that 1.35 gallons of propane

autogas is equivalent to 1 gallon of diesel, but propane fuel costs are lower, and this is where

savings are found. There is a secondary fueling site with a 2,000-gallon propane tank at the

Winter Springs complex. Seminole County Schools receives 1–2 daily deliveries from

AmeriGas, depending on the need. Seminole is currently working on purchasing an 18,000-

gallon propane tank to move away from the daily AmeriGas deliveries. Seminole has never

experienced issues with AmeriGas LPG deliveries.

Seminole County Schools uses Thomas (LPG), Blue Bird (LPG), and International (diesel)

buses, and the buses run approximately 100–200 miles per day. They get slightly lower range

with LPG. There are 75- to 100-gallon tanks in each school bus (the LPG buses can store 60 to

70 gallons on board), but these onboard tanks are only filled up to 80%. Seminole also stores

diesel on-site. At the Midway Complex, there are two 20,000-gallon diesel tanks. At the Winter

Springs Compound, there are three underground 20,000-gallon diesel tanks and one 20,000-

gallon unleaded gasoline storage tank.

Seminole has not experienced interruption of their LPG deliveries/supply, even during hurricane

and tropical storm events. They rely on historical fuel use data from prior hurricanes to estimate

fuel needs for an impending storm, but there is no perfect way to predict fuel needs fully

accurately during an emergency. Seminole fuels buses prior to the storm (diesel and propane)

and also ensures that the diesel generator located at the Winter Springs Compound is topped off

and diesel storage tanks are full.

Seminole County Schools credits good communication with AmeriGas as the reason the district

has not experienced fuel shortages or interruptions. They can also modify regularly scheduled

delivered with AmeriGas, depending on fueling needs. AmeriGas has a mobile refueling system

(Seminole would need to call AmeriGas and arrange to utilize the mobile refueling system). This

mobile refueling system can be used if the LPG bus is stranded on the road without fuel. During

past hurricane events, Seminole County Schools had loose agreements in place to fill up at Lynx

if needed (diesel fuel). School buses are not equipped to deal with standing water. Seminole is

tasked with performing evacuations (“Emergency Evacuation Team”), and there is high demand

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

for wheelchair-capable buses for evacuation (these are diesel-powered school buses). Emergency

evacuations are done, but roads are required to be cleared from debris (especially relevant for

post-storm activities to resume operation of the school buses on roadways). Seminole uses both

LPG and diesel school buses to perform these evacuations and other transport duties.

Figure B-3. 400-kW genset at Seminole County Schools.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

Figure B-4. Diesel storage at Seminole County Schools (2,877 gallons).

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Wind speeds are the determining factor for operating school buses during hurricanes. Once wind

speeds reach 35–40 mph, the buses are pulled off the routes. The Midway Complex does not

have a diesel generator on-site, but there is a diesel generator located at the Winter Springs

Compound. Seminole received a grant for a diesel generator to provide power for emergency

fueling. This generator provides enough fuel to supply a week’s worth of diesel fuel without

refilling. This is a large diesel generator (Generac 3-phase, 400 kW) sitting on top of a storage

tank, manufactured by Fidelity in Ocala. The generator is served by a 2,877-gallon diesel storage

tank. Since LPG fueling requires electricity, the ability to fuel could be disrupted if power is lost.

Seminole County Schools considered cost-effectiveness when evaluating propane and diesel

school buses. Propane infrastructure would have cost the county schools around $20,000. CNG

infrastructure is much more expensive in terms of capital costs. LPG school buses are more cost-

effective to maintain because they do not require technologies such as exhaust gas recirculation

valves or turbo).

Seminole is exploring other alternative fuel options and is committed to transitioning 75% of

their school bus fleet to propane. Seminole applied for 10 new LPG school buses under the

Diesel Emissions Reduction Act (DERA), which provides about $25,000 per bus. The county has

also applied to participate in the Electric School Bus Project – Initial Phase through the Florida

Diesel Emissions Mitigation Program (DEMP), which utilizes funds from the Volkswagen

Settlement and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Diesel Emissions Reduction Act

State Grant Program. Seminole has not yet heard results of that application decision. Since our

site visit with Seminole County Schools, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection

has released funding availability ($57 million) for the purchase of electric Type C or Type D

school buses to replace eligible diesel school buses. It is unknown if Seminole will be pursuing

that funding opportunity. Seminole County Schools has explored solar arrays and electric school

buses, but there are many issues to address, including concerns over wattage, charging times, and

backup power options.

City Furniture

The City Furniture fleet facility in Tamarac spans over 1 million square feet. The fleet operates

63 electric forklifts and tugs. City Furniture runs Peterbilt CNG trucks and conducts all

maintenance in-house. The company has had to make a few changes to the maintenance facility

to accommodate CNG vehicles, including lowering lighting and increasing ventilation. The CNG

trucks achieve 7 miles per diesel gallon equivalent, versus 4–5 mpg for similar diesel trucks.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure B-5. CNG fleet using time-fill.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

City Furniture also operates two electric Kalmar Ottawa yard trucks on-site and has three on

order. These battery-electric trucks can operate 12–15 hours before they need to be recharged. It

takes approximately 4 hours to recharge them using a 480-V charger. City Furniture has had

those yard trucks for 2–3 years now without encountering any operational issues.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure B-6. City Furniture electric Kalmar Ottawa yard truck.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

City Furniture started with 150 diesel trucks and began converting its fleet to CNG in 2012–

2013. They used several companies in the past to convert vehicles to CNG. Currently, City

Furniture uses companies in Texas (Net G and Momentum Fuels) to retrofit trucks to CNG. The

company currently operates 207 CNG delivery trucks and has the goal of converting 100% of the

fleet to CNG and electric. All trucks are owned by City Furniture. In their conversion, City

Furniture took advantage of a Florida Natural Gas Rebate previously offered by the FDACS.

CNG vehicles perform better than gasoline and cost less to maintain. Additionally, even with

conversion costs, CNG trucks end up costing $4,000 less than gasoline trucks.

City Furniture has its own employees certified to inspect CNG tanks (required every 36 months

and after each accident 5 mph or higher). The Natural Gas Vehicle Institute (NGVI) provides

CNG training that City Furniture uses to train its staff. However, 80% of NGVI training is basic.

Most CNG training received by City Furniture staff (e.g., drivers, mechanics) comes from on-

the-job training.

The company uses private time-fill CNG fueling on-site that can also be used for fast-filling for a

few vehicles. The CNG fueling station has two ANGI compressors on-site and no fuel storage, as

the vehicles are fueled directly from the compressor. The current natural gas supplier is Center

Ice. City Furniture is extremely happy with the quality of gas they have been receiving (very

clean and dry). They check filters daily. City Furniture handles routine maintenance of the

station/compressors (daily/weekly preventative maintenance) internally and uses an outside

company for larger (more complicated) maintenance items.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure B-7. City Furniture CNG station.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

City Furniture receives some credits for renewable natural gas, though the fuel is sourced in

another state. Renewable natural gas is priced equivalent to CNG.

City Furniture has developed a preparation plan to deal with emergency events and natural

disasters. During hurricane events, standard procedures include staging vehicles against the wall

(to protect from debris and wind), locking everything down, and zip-tying all CNG station

nozzles. All vehicles are stored on-site. The company suspends operation when sustained wind

reaches 35 mph, which is a standard threshold for many fleets. The company uses a hotline and

the City Furniture app to communicate with employees during emergencies.

The company has 2,000 gallons of gasoline stored for its fleet. The company also has a diesel

generator to power the building and a CNG-powered generator to support vehicle fueling, which

can fuel CNG vehicles without power. The City Furniture fleet has never experienced issues with

flooding, as the facility is located outside of major flood zones. As a contingency plan, City

Furniture has an agreement with TruStar to deliver CNG on-site in the event the City Furniture

fueling station is completely down. This scenario, though, is highly unlikely and has never

happened in the past. During Hurricane Irma, the city of Sunrise asked for CNG, and the

company provided CNG fuel for the municipality’s priority fleet vehicles. The request for CNG

fuel was managed through the local EOC.

City Furniture is researching electric delivery trucks and is interested in fleet electrification. City

Furniture representatives have visited several vehicle manufacturers to explore suitable models

for City Furniture. The company has eight Teslas on order to be used as company cars. City

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Furniture has enough electric power infrastructure to support EVs and is investigating the

potential of solar energy.

Key areas to address during hurricanes/disasters:

• Planning, communication, and follow-through.

• Redundancies (e.g., City Furniture operates two compressors at the CNG station to

ensure uninterrupted operation).

Figure B-8. City Furniture CNG delivery fleet.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

Broward County Transit – Paratransit Division

Broward County Transit (BCT) serves Broward County and segments of Palm Beach and

Miami-Dade Counties through coordination with Palm Tran and Miami-Dade Transit.

The BCT Paratransit Division operates 377 vehicles, of which 277 are propane and the

remainder are gasoline-powered. BCT used the company ICOM NA to convert vehicles to

propane. BCT uses several types of LPG vehicles: Ford E-450s (12–18-passenger vehicle), Ford

Transit cutaways, and Ford Tauruses. The Ford E-450 came with the ROUSH LPG system. They

have 41 usable gallons of propane that give an approximate 200-mile range. The newer vehicles

have 65 usable gallons and can provide 300+-mile range. ROUSH did not have an LPG

conversion system for the smaller Ford transit buses. The LPG Ford transit cutaway buses

achieve great mileage (12 mpg). BCT mainly uses bi-fuel propane vehicles (propane and

gasoline). It is not clear if drivers are incentivized enough to run mainly on propane rather than

on gasoline. Gasoline is more expensive than LPG, so running on gasoline would increase

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

operating costs. BCT is working with ICOM NA (propane converter) to develop a mono-fuel

(LPG-only) system for the buses.

BCT purchases propane from AmeriGas, who also maintains propane fueling infrastructure on-

site. The station has two storage tanks with 1,990 gallons of propane each (3,800 gallons of

propane total). The dispensers are wired to the internet, so it is easy to monitor usage. All

vehicles using the station have fobs that allow for monitoring fuel use. Additionally, those fobs

allow for use with other Broward County fleet propane stations.

Figure B-9. BCT paratransit bus fueling with propane.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

BCT uses county fueling stations for gasoline vehicles and does not have gasoline fuel storage

on-site.

During previous hurricanes (such as Hurricane Irma in 2018), gasoline and diesel were not

available through the port. However, BCT performed all evacuation using LPG vehicles, since

propane supply was not interrupted. The county has 60,000 gallons of LPG storage.

Additionally, AmeriGas is able to come on-site and “wet-fuel” vehicles if needed. As a result,

BCT had no issues with fuel supply during past hurricanes. During hurricanes, BCT often gets

requests from city agencies to fuel with propane.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure B-10. BCT propane paratransit buses.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

When the county put a bid for propane supply, they put a requirement that the supplier have a

local storage of at least 300,000 gallons of fuel in Broward County. With 600,000 gallons of

LPG storage, AmeriGas meets that requirement easily. Given an important role of BCT for

evacuation and other critical functions, BCT has priority fueling for both gasoline and propane.

A new contract with AmeriGas added three additional LPG stations in the county.

Fuel is typically rationed based on the routes the buses run. Buses get 1/4 1/2, or a full tank of

fuel depending on the route and required range. This system is used for everyday operation. The

BCT propane station allows for filling up the full tank in 6 minutes, accommodated by a larger

pump motor installed.

Broward County is planning to continue expanding its LPG fleet and also plans to replace

community shuttles with propane vehicles.

Paratransit service in Broward County is operated by Transportation America (contractor).

Fixed-route transit service is handled by Broward County internally. BCT maintains the fleet.

There are no issues finding mechanics to work on propane vehicles. ROUSH provided some

initial training with LPG vehicles, but there is not much significant difference compared to

gasoline/diesel vehicles.

ROUSH is also very responsive with any technical issues. BCT had an issue in the past with

buses stalling for no apparent reason. ROUSH helped with finding the problem. The issue turned

out to be related to an electric system rather than fuel (LPG). BCT also worked with ROUSH to

design a bleeding system used to empty the tanks when maintenance on the vehicles is

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

performed. As result, LPG is not vented from the vehicle but rather collected into an external

tank, resulting in cost savings for the agency.

Figure B-11. BCT propane fueling facility.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

There was an instance when one of the LPG buses caught on fire caused by vehicle electrical

issues. Since the bus was propane, the city fire department did not know how to handle it. They

decided not to put out the fire and let the bus burn to the ground. BCT propane buses had been

involved in several severe accidents, but none of them caused fuel leaks.

The biggest issue with LPG infrastructure is compliance with local ordinances and zoning rules.

This is especially relevant for larger-capacity fueling sites. For example, the city of Deerfield

only permitted for the installation of one propane fueling station.

Broward County Schools runs approximately 200 buses on propane, so the market for propane in

the county is healthy and growing. Additionally, BCT is talking to AmeriGas about getting

renewable propane. BCT fixed-route service runs some battery-electric buses (Proterra), but

paratransit service does not. For paratransit service, it is possible to use light-duty EV sedans,

since not all paratransit vehicles need wheelchairs.

One obstacle for electrification is the need for EV charging infrastructure, which is expensive.

Additionally, paratransit service is contracted out with a 5-year contract. That time period may

not be enough for the contractor to recoup the investment in infrastructure. This will be

challenging to do given a 5-year planning horizon, and the contract may need to be extended

beyond 5 years.

Lessons learned from LPG implementation:

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

• Ensure to carefully plan and prepare for alternative fuels to mitigate surprises. The

Propane Education and Resource Council (PERC) was a great resource for BCT. BCT

saves approximately $8.5 million in fuel cost over 5 years with LPG compared to

gasoline.

• Account for a range of vehicles. Broward County is primarily urban, which affects duty

cycle and fuel usage (fuel usage needed to be estimated while running a bid for

AmeriGas).

• The partnership with the fuel provider is very important.

• BCT did not use a lock-in fuel rate. The price of propane is low enough to do so, but at

market/sport price. BCT uses a fixed per-gallon administrative cost on top of the regular

price. BCT currently pays $1.5 per gallon of propane.

During past hurricanes, BCT received a request from only one fleet to share LPG. Usually BCT

does not advertise that they have propane. In an emergency, fuel availability and sharing is

typically handled by the EOC, so requests for fuel would usually come through the EOC. Since

Broward County Schools also runs propane buses, BCT can combine efforts with them in

emergency situations.

Procedures before the hurricane include topping-off all vehicles with fuel and parking vehicles

on the property in a pattern that allows for protecting newer vehicles from being damaged by

debris (newer vehicles are parked in the middle, surrounded by older ones). BCT also has a local

call-in number for AmeriGas and local support, which is very handy in emergencies. BCT

paratransit facility has a diesel generator on-site that is enough to support the building and

fueling operations. The BCT fleet did not experienced any problems with standing water.

The BCT paratransit division does not stage buses in different locations before a hurricane. All

paratransit buses are stationed at the facility during hurricanes. BCT gets great support from

AmeriGas in terms of fueling infrastructure. AmeriGas is located 10 minutes away from the BCT

facility and can dispatch techs very fast to troubleshoot problems with the station.

Transportation America (operator of paratransit service) uses an interactive voice response (IVR)

system to communicate with employees during emergencies (automated robocalls). Broward

County uses a similar system to communicate with its employees.

Jacksonville Transportation Authority

The Jacksonville Transportation Authority (JTA) provides public transit service to the city of

Jacksonville, Florida. JTA began converting its fleet to CNG buses in 2015, citing environmental

benefits as the primary reason for converting to the alternative fuel. This justification is also

spurring the agency’s exploration into electric transportation. The agency is also exploring the

potential use of renewable natural gas, which is not yet available in the Jacksonville area.

In 2013, JTA commissioned the Alternative Fuel Study to identify alternatives to diesel that

would reduce emissions and be cost-effective. That study recommended CNG as the most

promising option. JTA also made the decision to use CNG buses for its bus rapid transit (BRT)

system (called First Coast Flyer), which launched in late 2015.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

JTA currently runs 118 CNG buses, 71 diesel buses, 7 hybrids and 3 Gillig battery-electric buses

(BEBs). The agency is also planning to acquire additional CNG buses and a CNG tow truck.

The agency is installing two ChargePoint depot chargers (four outlets) that can charge BEBs in 3

hours.

Figure B-12. JTA battery-electric bus.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

JTA has two CNG stations on property, one private and one public. Stations are built and

operated by Clean Energy through a public-private partnership. JTA entered into a fuel purchase

agreement with Clean Energy, which specifies that JTA would convert an average of 20 buses

per year for 5 years, for a total of 100 buses. The agency has always exceeded the minimum

number of CNG buses stipulated in the agreement. The existing CNG stations can accommodate

a fleet of 150 CNG buses, with some limited capacity for additional buses. Clean Energy

committed to construct and operate CNG fueling stations for a period of 15 years. The station

was constructed in 12 months and was completed at the end of 2015. JTA received a $2.7-

million Transportation Regional Incentive Program (TRIP) grant from FDOT to construct the

station. One of the provisions of that grant required JTA to make the CNG station open to the

public. As a result, Clean Energy essentially constructed two stations: one public and one

private.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Figure B-13. JTA CNG fueling station.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

JTA does not store CNG on-site; therefore, fuel supply interruption can cause disruptions,

though this has not happened yet. The agency has large storage of both diesel fuel and gasoline

on-site (275,000 gallons of diesel).

Figure B-14. JTA on-site diesel fuel storage.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Many years ago, the CNG station had problems that caused it to be down, raising concerns of

reliability. The station has four compressors and can handle one or two of the compressors being

down for maintenance or repairs.

While there are plenty of sources for CNG training, there is a lack of robust training for

maintenance people to handle BEBs. Original equipment manufacturers may provide some

assistance with training, but not much. Gillig provides some training for BEBs, but it is very

basic. JTA is looking to find a way to maintain batteries longer, given the high cost of battery

replacement.

JTA’s current BEBs have 169 miles of range. The agency plans to continue expanding its BEB

fleet. In order to install EV chargers for the two buses, JTA had to do electrical upgrades,

including adding a transformer. One of the challenges with using BEBs is long routes. JTA

covers the entire Duval County, which is a large geographical area. The range of BEBs may not

be suitable for all routes.

Figure B-15. Electric bus charging station installation.

Source: Tampa Bay Clean Cities

JTA considered using propane for its Connection fleet (JTA’s paratransit service), though this

turned out to not be cost-effective.

One of JTA’s electric buses encountered standing water in operation. When the bus went through

standing water, a leak in the wheel well was discovered. Standing water did not cause any issues

for electrical components of the bus. The battery is located on top of the bus and was unaffected.

The general rule of thumb given to drivers about standing water is: “if you can’t see the road,

don’t go.”

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

One BEB had a balancing problem when charging (would not charge above 80%). The

manufacturer (Gillig) addressed this issue with the battery (under warranty).

JTA has outfitted their maintenance shop with fall protection to service the vehicle battery

located on top of the bus.

JTA also has five techs trained as CNG tank inspectors. Tanks need to be inspected after every

accident of 5 mph or higher, regardless of where the impact was. It is expensive to invite outside

inspectors, and they may not come on short notice. JTA decided to invest in its own tank

inspectors.

The public CNG station is available to other fleets and accepts credit cards. Refuse haulers and

medium-duty city fleets fuel there. The JTA facility has a 300-kW diesel generator that can be

used to power the facility (and support fueling) during power interruptions. Additionally, the

Clean Energy CNG station has its own 1,200-kW diesel generator. JTA will have to install

another generator for EV fueling in case of power interruption. The existing 300-kW generator

can only be used for diesel fueling and will not be enough to charge BEBs.

JTA does not store CNG on-site, but instead fills buses directly from the compressor. The fueling

system and bus-mounted tanks are monitored for gas leaks (color-coded gas leak system). There

was one instance when a CNG bus rolled over and all eight roof-mounted CNG tanks were

damaged and vented natural gas. Other than this accident, JTA has never had any serious gas

leaks at the facility.

The biggest issue with CNG is the requirement to inspect CNG tanks after every accident at or

above 5 mph. JTA expects this requirement to be lifted at some point. 5 mph is really not that

much, and there is no need to inspect the tanks if the area of impact did not involve parts of the

bus where tanks are located.

JTA has never experienced issues with fuel deliveries or fuel shortages. Petroleum fuel (diesel

and gasoline) comes from the Port of Jacksonville. JTA has developed a set of procedures to

manage emergencies, including natural disasters. These procedures include accounting for the

amount of fuel on hand, fueling all vehicles in preparation for hurricanes, and stationing buses in

different locations on high ground (JTA has three locations). All these measures are implemented

to make sure buses are available to provide service, evacuation, and emergency response.

In addition to supporting its own fleet, JTA also serves as a backup fuel storage for the city of

Jacksonville. The agency goes into lockdown before a hurricane hits. Operations are suspended

when sustained winds reach 35 mph. JTA uses several locations around the city to stage buses

(e.g., Northdale facility is the secondary staging site).

The EOC coordinates fuel sharing during emergencies. JTA communicates its fuel availability to

EOC during disasters. If other government fleets (e.g., fire department, police) need fuel, they

will reach out to the EOC, who will direct them to go to JTA to fuel. Fuel availability during

emergencies is communicated through a web-based application “WebEOC.” JTA also runs

regular evacuation drills with the city of Jacksonville.

Lessons learned from previous hurricane events:

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

• JTA should have staged bus recall procedures. When operations were suspended at 35

mph, all buses were instructed to return back to the facility. As a result, 200 buses were

waiting for vault to deposit fareboxes.

• JTA has a robust remote work capability that worked really well during previous

hurricane events.

• Use satellite phones to communicate during emergencies. The phones have wireless

priority service (available for government agencies), which allows for pushing the caller

to the front of the line when all circuits are busy. This worked very well during

emergencies.

• JTA has never had issues with fuel deliveries coming through the Port of Jacksonville.

The port operates in a similar way as JTA.

• JTA is independent of Colonial Pipeline, so JTA’s fuel deliveries were not impacted by

the recent Colonial Pipeline interruptions.

• During previous power interruptions, it was discovered that one building on the property

and one rear gate on the facility were not wired to the generator, so the gate becomes

inoperable if central power is out. Other than that, the facility is rather resilient to power

interruptions. In fact, the bus facility is wired to two utility blocks (if one loses power,

only part of campus loses power).

Advice to other agencies:

1. Give enough time to prepare for last-minute issues before a hurricane. Have a plan.

2. Implement previously developed plans.

JTA coordinates with the city and county to update evacuation plans regularly. JTA is the lead

agency for the city of Jacksonville transportation evacuation. The agency sends a copy of

updated emergency plans to the city. During emergencies, JTA uses two-way communication

apps to communicate with the public and employees. They use this app to blast public

notifications during emergencies and also have an employee hotline.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Appendix C. Alternative Fuel Vendors

Last Name First Name Title Organization Fuel Type E-mail Location Phone Cell

Magwood John

American

Homegrown

Fuel Corporation

Hydrogen,

biofuels

john@fcbio.com

Rifenbary Jared American

Natural Gas

CNG

jrifenbary@america

nnaturalgas.com

Westberg Joe AmeriGas Propane

joseph.westberg@

AmeriGas.com

Jacksonville,

904-652-6132

Franscell Lance S

ales Manager AmeriGas

Propane

lance.franscell@A

meriGas.com

Tampa, FL

33610

813-210-4763

Wheeler Joe Senior Account

Manager

AmeriGas/Herita

ge Propane

Propane

joe.wheeler@Ameri

Gas.com

Tampa, FL

33610

813-626-9111 727-423-6424

Josephs Ste

ve Co-Founder,

Director of

Engineering

ampCNG Natural gas

sjosephs@ampCN

G.com

Chicago, IL

60607

630-235-9841

Johnson Jeremiah Dir of Agriculture/Alt

Energy Programs

Be-Ev.Com EVSE

infrastructure

jeremiah64@gmail.

com

727-463-0020

De Antonio Jose C

EO BioDiesel Las

Americas

(BDLA)

Biodiesel

production

jdeantonio@bdlaus.

com

Miami, FL 305-851-6974 954-980-9538

Ballestero Carlos Commercial &

Procurement

Manager

BioDiesel Las

Americas

(BDLA)

Biodiesel

production

cballestero@bdlaus

.com

Miami, FL 305-851-6974 954-512-7587

Noicely Adr

ianne Executive Sales

Manager

Blink EVSE

infrastructure

Anoicely@BlinkCha

rging.com

Miami, FL 305-521-0200

ext. 200

305-720-0958

Cox Brandon NE Florida Business

Development

Manager

Blossman Gas Propane

bcox@blossmanga

s.com

Jacksonville,

FL 32219

336-963-3939

Giabaldi Mik

e Sales Manager Brickell Energy EVSE

infrastructure

mgibaldi@brickelle

nergy.com

Miami, FL 305-389-4615

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Last Name First Name Title Organization Fuel Type E-mail Location Phone Cell

Rothe Jeff Sales Director,

Florida

ChargePoint,

Inc.

EVSE

infrastructure

jeff.rothe@chargep

oint.com

954-644-2944

Dunn David

Facilities

Management

City of Orlando Electric

DAVID.DUNN@orl

ando.gov

Orlando, FL

32802

407-246-3873 321-231-2904

Clean Energy

Customer Service

Clean Energy

CNG Station

Orlando Airport

CNG Orlando, FL

32827

866-809-4869

Torlai Eme A

ccount Manager Clean Energy

Fuels

Natural gas

eme.torlai@cleane

nergyfuels.com

Dallas, TX

75225

214-572-6591 972-750-6850

Carlos Andres National Account

Manager

Clean Energy

Fuels

Natural gas

andres.carlos@clea

nenergyfuels.com

562-370-6695

Moore Sher

ika Business

Development

Manager

Clean Energy

Fuels

Natural gas

sherika.moore@cle

anenergyfuels.com

603-724-6648 404-230-4043

Langille Brian Interim Director

Clearwater Gas

System

Natural gas

brian.langille@clear

watergas.com

Clearwater, FL

33755

727-562-4911

Tindal Ch

ris Assistant Director Commercial

Aviation AF

Initiative

(CAAFI)

Aviation fuel

tindal.caafi.ad@gm

ail.com

Meyer Matt Sales & Business

Development

Dannar Off-road

EV/mobile

power station

mmeyer@dannar.u

s.com

Muncie, IN 574-329-9768

Magalhães Ri

cardo Sales US and

Canada

Efacec USA EVSE

infrastructure

ricardo.magalhaes

@efacec.com

(+351) 933

030 928

Araujo Ricardo

Sales Manager for

Europe and North

America

Efacec USA

EVSE

infrastructure

ricardo.araujo@efa

cec.com

(+351) 912

302 671

Sousa Iv

an Director of Sales Efacec USA EVSE

infrastructure

ivan.sousa@efacec

.com

(+351) 932

790 032

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Last Name First Name Title Organization Fuel Type E-mail Location Phone Cell

Shapiro Ben Business

Development

Manager

Endera EVSE

infrastructure

ben@enderacorp.c

307-776-9400

Dodd David Account Manager Ferrell Gas -

Pinellas Park

Service Center

Propane

daviddodd@ferrellg

as.com

Pinellas Park,

FL 33782

727-544-1416

Glander Richard Operations

Supervisor

Ferrell Gas -

Pinellas Park

Service Center

Propane

richardglander@fer

rellgas.com

Pinellas Park,

FL 33782

727-544-1416

Wike Andy P

resident Fleetwing

Corporation

Biodiesel,

ethanol

andywike@fleetwin

goil.com

Lakeland, FL

33802

863-665-7557

Moyer Elda Account Executive Florida City Gas CNG

Elda.Moyer@nexter

aenergy.com

Doral, FL 786-459-3814

Bowers Bet

Electric Vehicle

Specialist

Florida Power &

Light Company

Electric

beth.bowers@fpl.co

Juno Beach,

FL 33408

561-304-5670 561-262-6656

Earley Patti Fleet Fuel

Operations

Specialist

Florida Power &

Light Company

Electric

patti.earl[email protected]o

561-904-3222

Thompson Mark B

usiness

Development

Manager

Florida Public

Utilities

Natural gas,

propane,

electric

mthompson@fpuc.

com

DeBary, FL

32713

386-747-6553

McGoldrick Bill Key Accounts

Manager

Florida Public

Utilities

Natural gas,

propane,

electric

bmcgoldrick@fpuc.

com

West Palm

Beach, FL

33409

561-202-5131

Ricre Romer

Florida Public

Utilities

Electric, CNG

rsicre@fpuc.com

Fernandina

Beach, FL

Erik GAIN Clean

Fuel

CNG Kissimmee,

FL 34758

800-438-7912

Hoover Buz

z Gate Petroleum Ethanol, CNG,

electric

brhoover@gatepetr

o.com

Jacksonville,

904-448-2922

Glover Oil Biodiesel 20

Melbourne, FL

32901

321-723-3953

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Last Name First Name Title Organization Fuel Type E-mail Location Phone Cell

Swarthout Cindy GoSpace EVSE

infrastructure

cswarthout@gospa

cego.com

Henderson Rock GoSpace

EVSE

infrastructure

rhenderson@gospa

cego.com

813-421-5121 813-843-8430

Mills Andr

ea District General

Manager

Heritage

Propane

andrea.mills@Amer

iGas.com

Tampa, FL

33610

813-626-9111

Traversa Xan Jacksonville

Transportation

Authority

CNG

atraversa@jtafla.co

Jacksonville,

904-632-5501

McKee Dav

e Electrification

Program Manager

JEA Electric

mckewd2@jea.com

Jacksonville,

FL 32202

904-665-4336

Clemmons Cynthia Manager of

Legislative &

Regulatory

Relations

Lakeland

Electric

Electric Cindy.Clemmons

@LakelandElectri

c.com

863-834-6595 863-430-1368

Davis Spe

ncer NASA Traffic

Management

Specialist

NASA/KSC Electric/B20/

E85/hydrogen

spencer.c.davis@n

asa.gov

Kennedy

Space Center,

FL 32899

321-861-1633 321-289-7268

Locke Jack President & Chief

Operating Officer

Nopetro Natural gas

jlocke@nopetro.co

Coral Gables,

FL 33134

305-775-9647

Petro CNG

(LYNX)

CNG Orlando, FL

34804

Ovitt David General Manager Northside

Propane Inc.

Propane

dave@northsidepro

pane.com

Lutz, FL

33549

813-949-4286

McDevitt Jody S

ales Director NovaCharge EVSE

infrastructure

jody@novacharge.

net

Rigsby Will NovaCharge Electric

willrigsby@novacha

rge.net

Oldsmar 404-229-3603

Paul Luis Mana

ging Director OBE Power

Networks

EVSE

infrastructure

lpaulk@otepi.com

Miami, FL 832-260-1384

Burgana Alejandro Managing Director

OBE Power

Networks

EVSE

infrastructure

aburgana@brickell

energy.com

Miami, FL 305-546-5407

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Last Name First Name Title Organization Fuel Type E-mail Location Phone Cell

Caceres Christin Sustainability

Business Support

Specialist

Orlando Utilities

Commission

Electric

ccaceres@ouc.com

Orlando, FL

32802

407-434-2859

Westlake Peter Manager, New

Products and

Solutions

OUC Electric

pwestlake@ouc.co

Orlando, FL

32801

407-434-2036 407-417-7646

Dennis Bre

tt Palatka Gas CNG

bdennis@palatkaga

s.com

386-983-4267

Guerrero Richard Equipment Sales &

Service Manager

Pioneer Critical

Power

Generators/

mobile

rguerrero@pioneer

criticalpower.com

Miami, FL 305-599-2045 305-764-4905

Bradley Sco

tt Director of Sales Pioneer Power

Mobility

Mobile EVSE/

propane

Scott@Pioneer-

eMobility.com

Champlin, MN 617-337-3537

Kuenzli Eric Pivotal LNG LNG

ckuenzli@pivotallng

.com

Carroll Br

ian Fleet Manager Port Canaveral Electric/LNG

bcarroll@portcanav

eral.com

Cape

Canaveral

321-783-7831

x 285

Pearson Amber Director of

Marketing

Protec Fuel

Management

LLC

Ethanol

amber@protecfuel.

com

Boca Raton,

FL 33487

573-268-6853

Kaiyalethe Da

vid Marketing Manager Protec Fuel

Management

LLC

Ethanol

david@protecfuel.c

Boca Raton,

FL 33487

561-392-3667

Linn Jason Marketing Director Rack Electric EVSE

infrastructure

creative@rackelectr

ic.com

Boca Raton,

561-391-3550

yla Ross Plumbing CNG Leesburg, Fl

34748

352-728-6053

Nordsiek Jeff St. Johns

County

CNG

jnordsiek@sicfl.us

904-209-0283

McAllister Ala

n Regional Account

Representative

Suburban

Propane

amcallister@suburb

anpropane.com

Tampa, FL

33610

352-303-4505

Cole David Suburban

Propane

dcole@suburbanpr

opane.com

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Last Name First Name Title Organization Fuel Type E-mail Location Phone Cell

Fernald Donald President Superior Energy

Systems

Propane

infrastructure

donald@superiornr

g.com

Columbia

Station, OH

44028

440-236-6009

Cozma Samy Biofuels Analyst Targray Biodiesel,

ethanol

scozma@targray.c

Kirkland,

Quebec

514-695-8095 438-889-0551

Hernandez Ken

neth Program Manager,

Alt Fuel Vehicles

TECO Energy Electric

kxhernandez@teco

energy.com

Tampa, FL

33602

813-228-1392

Cervantes Horacio TECO Peoples

Gas

CNG

hcervantes@tecoe

nergy.com

Tampa, FL

33602

Bahadue Geor

ge Market Lead,

Charging

Infrastructure

Tesla Electric

gbahadue@tesla.c

Palo Alto, CA

94304

703-992-3698

Bolger Shaun Senior Category

Manager - Fuel

Pricing

Thorntons Inc. Ethanol

shaun.bolger@myt

horntons.com

502-572-1562 502-727-7886

Duley Hand

lin Senior Category

Manager - Retail

Fuel

Thorntons Inc. Ethanol

handlin.duley@thor

ntonsinc.com

Louisville, KY

Flynn Anthony Southeast Sales

Director

TruStar Energy Natural gas

aflynn@trustarener

gy.com

Rancho

Cucamonga,

CA 91730

678-215-2762

Watson

lon

Yara UCF Office of

Sustainability

University of

Central Florida

Electric/

propane

Yara.Watson@ucf.

edu

Orlando, 407-823-3353

Butler Brian President VISTRA Electric, natural

gas

brian@consultvistra

.com

Tampa, FL

33613

813-961-1077

Chadbourne Har

land

Director of

Purchasing

Waste Pro CNG

hchadbourne@w

asteprousa.com

2101 West SR

434

Longwood, FL

32779

407-937-2663 305-506-7911

Withlacoochee

Electric

Cooperative

Electric Dade City, FL

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Appendix D. MCDA Algorithm for Potential New Fuel

Station Identification

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Appendix E. Workflow for Future EVSE Needs

Mapping

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Appendix F: Literature Review for Vehicles in

Standing Water

Background and Purpose

The purpose of this literature review is to inform Task 5 of the Florida Statewide Alternative

Fuel Resilience Plan Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) project. Specifically, this

literature review assesses information on vehicles and their ability to withstand hurricanes,

standing water, and flooding. Critical transportation vehicles such as first-responder fleets, as

well as AFV technologies, are focus areas of the literature review. It is important to understand

the limitations of vehicles in these scenarios and potential modifications that could be made to

improve their durability in order to recommend which vehicles should be added to a fleet for use

in emergency response situations.

The literature review was the first step in our standing water assessment (Section 9). It serves as

a background for virtual site visits (due to COVID-19) by a mechanic from NREL to fleets that

have had a variety of vehicles deal with flooding issues.

Vehicle Water Damage

This section explores a variety of issues related to vehicles and flooding, including how to help

prevent vehicle damage during a hurricane or flood, as well as common vehicle damage and how

to assess and repair it.

Preventing Water Damage

When a hurricane or flooding event is imminent, there are things that vehicle and fleet owners

can do proactively to attempt to prevent or minimize damage to their vehicles. According to an

article in Economical Insurance (Fereiro 2018), there are a handful of actions that can be taken:

• Move vehicles to higher ground. As floodwaters accumulate in low-lying areas first,

move and park vehicles on top of a hill or on the top level of an aboveground parking

structure. Also ensure vehicles are away from trees or other objects that may damage

them during a storm.

• Close all windows and doors. Ensure all openings are sealed to prevent water from

getting inside the vehicle during rainfall or rising floodwaters.

• Consider disconnecting the battery. If floodwaters are expected to reach the vehicle,

consider disconnecting the battery to prevent electrical shorts and damage to the

computer and electronic equipment.

If a vehicle is being driven during a hurricane or flooding event, drivers should be careful not to

drive through large puddles or standing water. In many cases, water is deeper than it appears and

can therefore get into the vehicle’s engine (more detail in the subsequent Engine and

Transmission section). Even a small amount of water in an engine can cause irreparable damage.

Furthermore, according to the National Weather Service, 12 inches of water can carry away most

passenger vehicles, and 2 feet of water can sweep away SUVs and trucks (National Weather

Service 2020).

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Common Vehicle Damage and How To Assess and Repair It

When a vehicle is involved in a hurricane or flooding event, there are many common issues that

could occur. According to an article in Your Mechanic (Unrau 2016), it is common for metal

surfaces to rust prematurely and for nuts and bolts to seize. In addition, water damage can occur

inside the airbag, as the module and other connectors for the airbag controls are often located

under the seats of the vehicle.

Other common areas for damage with flooded vehicles are outlined in an article in the National

Automotive Parts Association Know How Blog (Jerew 2020), including water in the brake fluid,

power steering, and coolant reservoirs. If water enters the brake fluid, it can cause it to evaporate,

leading to a loss of braking power. In addition, brake pads and shoes can rust and spread the rust

to rotors and drums. Therefore, it is important to dry a flooded vehicle thoroughly and work

immediately to remove rust from a vehicle as soon as it is identified.

Assessing and Repairing Common Damage

According to an article in U.S. News & World Report (Trop 2019), the first thing to do after a

vehicle is involved in a flood or standing water (once it is safe to do so) is to evaluate how high

the floodwaters came on the vehicle. Look at the depth of the water or for evidence of a water

line by mud and debris. Water that didn’t rise above the bottom of the doors is unlikely to have

caused any significant damage. Water any higher than that could lead to significant damage or

even a totaled vehicle. As soon as it is safe to do so, start drying out the vehicle completely to

minimize damage and rust. Also pay attention to whether the water was fresh or salt water, as

salt water is much more corrosive and damaging than fresh water and is more likely to lead to a

totaled vehicle.

According to Unrau (2016), there are several next steps to take to assess initial damage from

flooding. First, check any controls that were submerged and ensure the emergency brake is

operational and that the pedals move when pressed. Also check that any manual (non-electric)

seat adjustments work properly and that the fuel tank, truck, and hood releases work.

Because water can enter brake and power steering fluids, Jerew suggests flushing the brake and

power steering systems and potentially draining the fuel tank to eliminate water contamination

(depending on the level of flooding). According to Jerew (2020), repairing flood damage is an

uncertain venture, and drying out the vehicle as quickly as possible will increase the chances of

being able to salvage it. However, according to an article in Advance Auto Parts (Jensen 2019),

in the worst-case scenario, flood damage can be beyond the repair of even the most skilled

mechanic. This is partially because modern vehicles have so many electronics (further discussed

in the subsequent Electrical Components section) that are not designed to get wet. Jensen also

echoed that the higher the level of the water, and especially if it is salt water, the harder it will be

to repair the vehicle and the higher the likelihood of totaling. If a vehicle is repairable, it is likely

that there could be hundreds of failure points over the next several years in delayed flood damage

and that the car will likely never drive the same again.

An example of a fleet assessing vehicle damage after a flooding event is described in an article in

Government Fleet (Force 2005). Dan Croft, Fleet Management Director for Collier County,

Florida, indicates that after a hurricane has passed, a garage is set up for hood checks for all

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

operating vehicles. Four employees are used to check the tires, fluid levels, and lights. Vehicles

that are used for extended period are given new oil and windshield wiper fluid.

Engine and Transmission

Common Damage

According to an article in The News & Observer (Stradling 2018), vehicle owners should not

start the engine of a flooded vehicle until it has been fully examined to ensure there is no water

in the engine. If water is in the engine or transmission, starting it can do serious damage.

According to an article in It Still Runs (Scott 2020), water in an engine can cause not only rust,

but also damage to the cylinders if there is water in the engine when it is started. If the cylinders

are full of water, the water will not be compressed like air is, and therefore everything connected

to the cylinders will bend or break. This phenomenon is called “hydrolocking” and will ruin an

engine instantly (Jensen 2019). In addition, water mixed with the transmission fluid or oil will

reduce the lubricating qualities, resulting in damage.

Stradling states that even driving through 6 inches of water in a vehicle with limited clearance

could allow water to get into the engine. If in doubt, an experienced mechanic should examine

the engine (Stradling 2018).

Assessing and Repairing Damage

According to State Farm (2020), the first way to check the engine for water is to check the oil

dipstick. On the dipstick, look for water droplets, which likely indicate that there is water in the

engine. If water is found, remove the water-damaged cylinders and check for corroded spots.

Next, check the fuel tank and line, using a siphon pump to remove some of the fuel to see if

water is present. If there is water in the fuel, empty the fuel tank completely.

Jerew (2020) states that the oil level should also be checked. If the oil level seems abnormally

high, it is indicative that water likely got into the crankcase (because oil floats on water). The

next step is to remove the spark plugs and turn the engine over by hand to get the water out of

the cylinders, drain the oil, and replace the oil filter.

Regarding the transmission, Jensen states that it is typically more sensitive to water damage than

an engine. To assess and repair it, first change the transmission fluid and filter and monitor it for

unusual behavior. Jerew indicates that automatic transmission discs and bands can delaminate in

water, and manual transmission synchronizers can be ruined with lack of lubrication. Also

change the axle differential fluid either by removing the differential cover or drain bolt or using a

fluid pump (Jerew 2020). Jensen (2019) also suggests checking the engine air filter and intake

ducting.

Finally, State Farm (2020) suggests changing the oil and transmission fluid right away and doing

it again after the car is in good condition and it has been driven for several hundred miles.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Electrical Components

Common Damage

According to Stradling (2018), vehicle owners want to know whether the air bags, electronics,

and computers were exposed to water, as water exposure to those components will cause damage

in the future. Newer vehicles have up to 60 different computer processors in them, and if you

submerge a computer in water, it is likely that it will not work the same again. A flooded vehicle

may run at first but will likely develop problems later, which can in turn cause vehicle functions

to fail. Stradling also echoed earlier statements that the higher the water on the vehicle, the more

electronics and parts of the vehicle will be affected.

According to Scott (2020), the electrical system in a vehicle is the part of the car that typically

sustains the worst damage from flooding. Scott indicates that electrical damage can take months

to appear and can be extremely expensive to repair. Because the electrical and computer system

can be thought of as the brain of the car, damage affects a multitude of aspects including electric

seat controls, windows, door locks, starter, headlights, anti-lock brakes, airbags, and horn, to

name a few.

Assessing and Repairing Damage

There are a few ways to assess initial damage to the electrical systems in a vehicle, according to

Jensen (2019). As previously stated, before turning on the engine to assess, make sure the engine

is dried out and safe to start. Turn on the heat and smell for a burning smell that would suggest

damaged wires. Also feel the wires under the dashboard and in the engine for brittleness. Listen

to the sound system to see if it is not working or sounds bad, which could be signs of water

damage (Jensen 2019). In addition, Unrau (2016) suggests checking the dashboard indicators by

starting the car and checking for any warning lights or new indicators. In addition, check power

windows and door locks. When checking power seat controls, check not only that they work but

also that they move the seat in the right direction when the button is pressed.

Interior Considerations

Assessing and Repairing Damage

Unrau (2016) states that the interior of a vehicle that has been flooded can develop mold,

mildew, and odors from saturated carpet and upholstery. To help prevent this from happening,

remove excess water from the vehicle and remove and dry any loose objects. Also hang floor

mats and other parts that can be removed to dry. Next, take out the console, seats, and carpets if

there was standing water in the vehicle to prevent rust. Finally, wash the carpeting and mats and

remove dirt and silt from the interior of the vehicle before replacing all interior items. Replace

items with new parts as needed.

Case Study: Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue

David Wade from the Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue Department (VBFD) wrote a report in

2010 about VBFD’s experience with flooding and the damage caused to their fire trucks (Wade

2010). This report is especially relevant because fire trucks are important first responders during

natural disasters, and the lessons learned can be transferred to multiple fleets of heavy-duty

diesel vehicles. This section provides a summary of their findings.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

During several severe weather events around 2009, VBFD responded to calls for service, as it is

the duty of the fire department to do so despite weather conditions. During these situations,

drivers encountered flooded roadways, which in turn led to VBFD trucks being damaged, some

extensively, from being operated on flooded roadways.

Following these events, the department evaluated the damage, cost of repairs, and need for driver

education and outlined their findings in a report. They also conducted outreach to national,

regional, and local department leaders requesting information on similar problems with flooding

and possible solutions. Apparatus manufacturers and private industry were also contacted for

information and recommendations. They concluded that flooding is not common, and that many

organizations do not know how to address flooding events.

Equipment Used and Damage Found

VBFD uses several different manufacturers of diesel fire trucks in their fleet: Pierce (primary),

American LaFrance, and Boardman. Damage from driving the equipment through flooded

roadways was found to be extensive, including:

• Wheel hubs filled with water and had to be serviced, including replacing the seals.

• Brakes were affected by the rapid heating and cooling and had to be replaced before their

normal service times.

• Air horns were damaged from water entering their inner working parts.

• Transmissions, rear-end differentials, and pump transfer cases had to be checked,

drained, flushed, and refilled with the proper fluids.

While these issues were able to be fixed relatively easily, the following issues were much more

serious and costly:

1. Water entered the air intake on the engine of one of the vehicles, and the engine stopped

working immediately in the field.

2. Damage to hydraulic lines and the front bumper from driving over unseen objects

underwater.

3. Damage to the electrical components. The location of the electrical box allowed it to be

submerged in the floodwaters, which caused systems on the truck to stop working that

could have ultimately threatened the safety of the first responders in the vehicle.

The air intake for the engine is below and behind the bumper, allowing water to enter the engine

and cause major damage, voiding the manufacturer’s warranty. VBFD was ultimately able to

negotiate the continuance of the warranty but did have to agree to have the engine torn down at a

higher cost to allow for water damage to be accurately assessed. It was found during this process

that the apparatus systems did their job successfully and shut down the engine before serious

damage occurred.

Potential Vehicle Modifications To Avoid Damage

Through VBFD’s research, they came across San Antonio Texas’ fire department, who

encountered similar issues with water entering the air intake and damage to the electrical box on

their Pierce Manufacturing fire trucks. San Antonio worked with Pierce to minimize the risk of

these issues happening during future flooding events. They moved the air intake to the side of the

truck over the passenger side front wheel and moved the electrical box into a compartment of

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

choice. These modifications can be done by the manufacturer or done aftermarket via a retrofit

kit.

Driver Training

VBFD found that lack of driver training and direction from the department on driving through

floodwaters was a contributor to vehicle damage. Young drivers with no flood experience made

poor decisions and drove the vehicle directly into the scene through floodwaters rather than walk

in and check the situation first, leaving the truck on higher ground. Vehicle drivers were not

aware of the repercussions of driving the vehicle through standing water. VBFD offers detailed

insight into driver training needs and future improvements in their report.

Results

VBFD found that the major causes of damage to the vehicles were water exposure and the design

of the vehicle being conducive to water damage. The most impacted parts were the engine air

intake and the electrical systems. They also found that vehicles suffered the costliest damage

from striking objects hidden underwater, water entering the engine, and water entering the

transmission pump, which pumps transmission fluid throughout the system.

VBFD planned work with the manufacturers to determine how to address the issues of air intake

and electrical systems, with the hope of modifying the vehicles similarly to what San Antonio’s

fire department did. Ultimately, VBFD was able to work with Pierce to obtain vehicles with

modified options for the air intake. Pierce also offers an option to relocate the electrical boxes to

an area that is less prone to water damage, placing them 5 ft off the ground as opposed to the

original position of 18 inches off the ground.

Preparing Fleets for Hurricanes and Flooding

An article in Fleet Management Weekly (Kavanagh 2020) provides tips for fleet managers on

preparing their fleet for a hurricane or flooding event. To prepare fleet garages and facilities,

patch roofs, secure windows, and check for loose items that may blow away. Also check security

lighting and that the emergency backup generator is operational. In addition, confirm that

communications equipment is in working order and take precautions to protect any vital paper

records. For drivers, Kavanagh suggests checking with managers or dispatchers before driving,

as well as strategizing routes prior to departing. If drivers hit heavy rain or flooding, exit the road

and stay in the vehicle, but do not drive into flooded areas. Finally, avoid electrical equipment

that may be submerged in water.

The Federal Transit Administration report Flooded Bus Barns and Buckled Rails: Public

Transportation and Climate Change Adaptation (Hodges 2011) discusses steps that transit

agencies should take prior to flooding events. First, when building major transportation facilities,

take caution to not build them in flood zones. In addition, before and during a flooding event,

clear debris from drainage systems to prevent flooding. Other actions include implementing

green infrastructure stormwater management like stormwater ponds, rain gardens, pervious

pavement, and native vegetation buffers to prevent localized flooding and reduce runoff.

An article in Truckinginfo (Roberts 2019) suggests making sure drivers are prepared for flooding

events by ensuring they have emergency items in their vehicles. This includes bottled water,

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

nonperishable foods, flashlights, and rain gear. In addition, knowing the path and timeline of the

storm and preparing for areas that might be hardest hit is crucial for planning.

Force’s (2005) article includes additional thoughts from fleets in Florida. In the article, Dan

Croft indicates that prior to a storm, routine vehicle services are put on hold to give priority to

repairs and maintenance that may be needed before the storm hits. This includes equipping all

emergency vehicles with extra tires, wheels, and 5-gallon cans of tire sealant. Croft also indicates

that vehicles that will not be used for post-storm services are pooled together and used for

evacuations.

Emergency Operating Plans

NAFA Fleet Management Association’s article (Glasheen 2020) discusses preparing fleets for

natural disasters. The primary piece of advice is creating a disaster or emergency operations plan

to remain operational during a storm and training staff and practicing dry runs to ensure seamless

execution. When creating a plan, fleet managers should consider a variety of topics, such as how

to operate if employees cannot get to work, determining critical employees and their roles, how

to protect vehicles and how to handle the repairs or replacements of damaged vehicles, backup

operations location if a facility is damaged, and a communication plan in the event of loss of cell

coverage. Finally, capture lessons learned during an emergency event and update the plan

accordingly. The Federal Transit Administration report echoes the need for an emergency

operating plan or standard operating procedure for extreme weather events considering their

increasing frequency.

Fleet Clean USA’s article “Preparing Your Fleet for Disasters” (Sharone 2018) adds to these

recommendations and suggests including a plan for having a power supply should the power go

out in an emergency operating plan. It also recommends ensuring extra parts are on hand that

may be needed for emergency repairs to vehicles or facilities. Also include emergency routes in

case of road closures and evacuation procedures.

Selective Insurance’s “Flood Vehicle Management Guidelines” (Selective Insurance 2014)

suggests designating an emergency operating plan coordinator, along with a backup, prior to any

emergency event. The plan included parameters around when to enact and the order of

operations for each step in the plan. Selective echoes the need to identify roles and

responsibilities for employees, including who will enact certain aspects of the plan, such as

securing facilities and clearing debris, and readying backup communications should the power or

cell towers go out. Finally, they recommend developing a plan for alternative vehicle storage

locations, which is discussed in more detail in the Vehicle Planning and Repositioning section.

Emergency Fuel Plans

A good emergency operating plan should also include a plan for emergency fuel. Kavanagh

(2020) suggests investing in an emergency fuel plan, which functions similar to an insurance

plan; paying a monthly fee and signing a contract that ensures access to a set amount of fuel that

will be delivered to fleet vehicles even if the normal fuel distribution network is out of

commission. He especially recommends this for first responders and other critical fleets like fire

fighters and utility companies, as an emergency fuel plan guarantees the fleet can continue to

operate during a storm.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Roberts (2019) suggests filling a fleet’s tanks ahead of a storm, as fuel can be difficult and

expensive to come by in the aftermath. This is another way to ensure fleet vehicles can operate

during or after a storm. Glasheen (2020) recommends filling up not only fleet vehicles prior to a

storm, but also employees’ personal vehicles to ensure they are able to report to work. In

addition, ensure the emergency fuel plan includes access to the variety of fuels the fleet uses, as

well as generators to prevent power outages for any on-site fueling equipment and fleet facilities.

This is also reiterated by Force (2005), who interviewed Doug Brock, Orange County’s fleet

manager. Brock states that the success of his fleet operations directly correlates to good fuel

management, including access to fuel and generator availability. He also states that he plans to

buy a new refueling system with more redundancy built in for emergency situations.

The city of Ocala was awarded a grant from the Federal Emergency Management Agency to

offset the cost of installing natural gas generators. These natural gas generators will be used to

supply the power necessary to charge five electric refuse trucks and the lift site, in addition to

lighting the building and powering the city’s on-site diesel fueling station.

Vehicle Planning and Repositioning

Another key aspect of preparing a fleet for a storm is planning for how to move vehicles and

assets out of harm’s way. The Federal Transit Administration states that a standard operating

procedure should be planned and implemented to move vehicles and other portable assets out of

harm’s way to an alternative location or two when flooding in predicted. Determine where assets

can be moved prior to the storm and work out an agreement with that facility, if needed. Also

ensure that the responsibility for moving vehicles is clear (Hodges 2011).

Selective Insurance also recommends this practice. They suggest identifying alternative storage

locations and entering into a contractual agreement to ensure the location will be available when

needed. It is suggested for larger fleets that two or more locations are identified, and that drivers

who will be responsible for moving the vehicles are aware of their roles. If the fleet is large,

consider arranging a contract with a transport service company to move the vehicles (Selective

Insurance 2014).

Roberts (2019) suggests parking trailers as closely together as possible when parking truck

trailers in an alternate location, with empty trailers tightly placed between the loaded trailers to

decrease the chance of being blown away by high winds.

Several examples of fleets moving their vehicles out of harm’s way are included in Force’s

article (Force 2005). Fleet manager Jon Crull states that in the city of Daytona Beach, Florida,

vehicles were parked in a stadium about 7 miles inland. Although the area sustained considerable

damage, the fleet remained intact. Croft indicated that any vehicles not being used during the

storm for evacuations or other purposes are repositioned away from trees and low-lying areas at

risk for flooding. Finally, in a phone interview conducted by NREL with the city of Tampa fleet

department in June 2020, the department indicated that one of their primary emergency protocols

is to move vehicles to higher ground prior to a storm. They have several parking structures in the

city, and vehicles are placed at the highest point of the structure.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

Driver Training

As discussed in the Emergency Operating Plans section, drivers in a fleet need to be trained on

all aspects of the plan and be clear on what they are responsible for prior to an emergency. In

Force’s article (Force 2005), Croft echoes the need for driver training, as several police cars lost

engines during a flooding event due to city employee errors and lack of judgement in high

waters. The importance of driver training is also discussed in the VBFD case study.

For example, the Federal Transit Administration’s Gulf Coast Climate Change Adaptation Pilot

Study (Texas A&M Transportation Institute 2013) describes how the Hillsborough Area

Regional Transit (HART) in Tampa has trained their drivers to respond to street flooding

encountered en route. When drivers encounter street flooding, they radio into dispatch with the

location and description of the flooding, and a HART supervisor is then sent out to examine. A

reroute is made accordingly. All drivers are instructed to decrease speed by at least 5 miles per

hour during rainfall.

Other Considerations

One other aspect for fleet operators to consider when preparing for a hurricane and flooding is

investing in a GPS, as described in an article in Rastrac (Dziuk 2020). GPS tracking can help

prepare fleets for an upcoming storm and keep vehicles and drivers safe by tracking the locations

of vehicles and their drivers. For example, GPS tracking can assist in locating migrated vehicles

after a storm and increases odds of recovering assets. Some GPS tracking devices also provide

drivers with panic buttons and emergency alerts. Kavanagh (2020) also suggests the use of a

GPS tracking solution to help optimize routing and avoid chokepoints in bad weather.

Preferred Vehicles for Driving Through Floodwaters

Although no literature was found on preferred vehicles for driving through floodwaters (e.g.,

vehicles that can typically make it through floodwaters with minimal damage), some information

can be gleaned from the phone interview with the Tampa fleet department and the VBFD case

study.

Tampa indicates that they do have vehicles in their fleet that were added specifically for their

ability to drive through floodwaters of up to 4 feet. Specifically, the HUMVs in their fleet can

sustain up to 30 inches of water. However, the best vehicle in the fleet for floods are dump trucks

and sewage trucks, as the engines vent on top of the transmission and can sustain up to 4 ft of

water. In addition, VBFD indicates that they modified their fire trucks so that instead of being

capable of sustaining 18 inches of water, they can now sustain up to 5 feet.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the higher the vehicle, and specifically the higher the engine

is off the ground, the better it will fare in floodwaters. However, this is an area with a clear gap

in literature that would benefit from additional insights from the fleet managers interviewed as

part of this effort.

Conclusion

This literature review consulted a total of 21 resources, including reports, articles, websites, and

notes from one phone interview. Most of the available resources were online articles or websites,

as few reports were found on vehicle resilience in hurricanes and floods.

This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.

A sufficient amount of information was found regarding common vehicle damage, as well as

how to assess and repair it, if possible. All the information identified, except for some

information on EVs, was for conventionally fueled vehicles. Therefore, there is a gap in

knowledge for how AFVs fare in hurricanes, standing water, and floods.

In addition, the majority of the information available was specific to passenger or light-duty

vehicles, with the exception of the VBFD report and the Tampa fleet interview. That said, there

is a gap in knowledge around how medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, especially those part of

critical fleets such as police, emergency, and utility vehicles, may sustain flooding.

Some information was available on potential vehicle modifications to help prevent floodwater

damage, particularly for the VBFD fire trucks. In addition, it can be inferred from the literature

that the higher the important vehicle components are off of the ground (e.g., engine air intake

and electrical components), the best chance a vehicle has at making it through floodwaters with

minimal damage. Another important factor is the placement of the critical vehicle components.

As previously stated, there is a knowledge gap here that would benefit from discussions with

fleets.

Finally, information on preparing fleets for hurricanes and floods, including emergency

operating plans, was readily available. In-depth information was found on best practices and

considerations for fleets that may experience extreme weather events.