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Content
Why, when and what do I have to cite? .......................................................................... 5
Why cite at all? .............................................................................................................. 5
When should I cite? ....................................................................................................... 6
Copyright law and good scientific practice ..................................................................... 8
Plagiarism and how to avoid it ..................................................................................... 10
How to cite in the text ....................................................................................................13
How to cite? ................................................................................................................ 13
Direct quotations .............................................................................................13
Indirect quotations / Paraphrasing ...................................................................14
Secondary citations .........................................................................................16
Citation systems and citation styles ............................................................................. 16
Citation styles ..................................................................................................18
Citation in science, technology, and medicine (STM) ......................................19
Citation in the economic and social sciences ..................................................20
How do I list different sources in the reference list? And what do I have to consider? ...21
Blog posts ................................................................................................................... 22
Book / E-Books ........................................................................................................... 22
Book chapter or article from a book / E-Book .............................................................. 23
Dissertation/Thesis ...................................................................................................... 23
Entry in an online encyclopedia ................................................................................... 24
Images ........................................................................................................................ 24
Images are protected by copyright law! ...........................................................24
When may I cite an image in my work? ...........................................................25
Permissions for the use of images beyond the right of citation ........................27
May I change an image? .................................................................................27
What else do I have to consider when using (my own) photos? ......................27
Special case: Screenshots ..............................................................................28
Captions and list of figures ..............................................................................30
Source citation in the reference list ..................................................................31
Interview ...................................................................................................................... 32
Journal articles (print and online) ................................................................................. 33
Laws............................................................................................................................ 33
Maps ......................................................................................................................... 36
Newspaper articles ................................................................................................... 38
Patents...................................................................................................................... 39
Personal communication and expert opinion ............................................................. 39
Research data ........................................................................................................... 40
Software and apps .................................................................................................... 43
Standards ................................................................................................................. 44
Students’ projects ..................................................................................................... 45
Tables ....................................................................................................................... 45
Unpublished Sources ................................................................................................ 47
Videos ....................................................................................................................... 47
Web pages ................................................................................................................ 48
Further questions regarding citation ..............................................................................50
How can I find free images? (Creative Commons) ....................................................... 50
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How should I use images in my presentation? ............................................................. 53
Who is the author? Who is the co-author? ................................................................... 53
How do I cite myself? - Citation or second publication? ............................................... 54
Is there an international copyright? .............................................................................. 57
Can I cite retracted articles? ........................................................................................ 60
How do I cite charts from Statista? .............................................................................. 61
What do I have to consider when using personal data?? ............................................. 62
Can I use an AI like ChatGPT to cite? ......................................................................... 63
Reference management software? – Yes! – But which one? .........................................64
Reference management software: Which one is the right one for you? ....................... 64
TUM Campus license for Citavi ................................................................................... 64
TUM Campus license for EndNote .............................................................................. 65
Free Programs ............................................................................................................ 65
Reference management and LaTeX ............................................................................ 66
Support and Information at TUM University Library ..................................................... 67
Recommendation on citation styles at TUM ...................................................................68
The APA style (Author-Year style) ............................................................................... 68
The IEEE Editorial Style (Numeric style) ..................................................................... 69
The Chicago Style (Footnote style) ............................................................................. 69
References ....................................................................................................................70
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Note
This citation guide was coordinated with the ombudspersons’ office for good scientific prac-
tice (Link to the Website of the TUM compliance office).
The ombudspersons’ office strongly recommends adhering to the principles of correct citation
and preventing plagiarism outlined.
The library of the Technical University of Munich accepts no responsibility for the complete-
ness and accuracy of the information. The information in this paper is intended as advice and
is not legally binding.
We appreciate your feedback.
This citation guide is being updated regularly. However, should you find that the information
mentioned herein is not accurate or you have suggestions for further improvement, we would
welcome an email to wor[email protected].
The latest version of this citation guide is available here: https://media-
tum.ub.tum.de/1231945 .
For further reading on good scientific practice at TUM
• Handout on Theses and Dissertations
• FAQs on Good Scientific Practice
• Statute of the Technical University of Munich on Safeguarding Good Academic Practice
and Procedures in Cases of Academic Misconduct (TUM-SGwP)
• Guidelines for Safeguarding Good Research Practice, Code of Conduct of the DFG (DFG,
German Research Foundation)
Imprint
Technical University of Munich
University Library
Arcisstr. 21, 80333 München
http://www.ub.tum.de
Munich, March 2024
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Citation Guide: How do I cite correctly?
Writing a research paper does not mean reinventing the wheel. You may and should draw on
knowledge and practice that others have already achieved in your field: Science is a cooper-
ative venture! Traceability is crucial. This is the hallmark of ‘good scientific practice,’
1
and in
addition, allows the readers of your work to investigate the same sources. It also enables the
reader to judge whether you have drawn justifiable conclusions from them, and further de-
velop their knowledge.
The findings of other authors, however, are as a rule protected by copyright. If you intend to
base your work on these findings, you therefore must identify where and from whom they
come from.
2
The top priority in academic work is the clear separation of the work of other authors from
your own. This guide, therefore, deals with the following questions:
• How do you distinguish thoughts, insights, and arguments in the text that are not your
own?
• How do you identify your sources in your reference list?
• How do you link the citation in the text with the source in the reference list?
• What are the formal rules for citations?
• What tools are available to help with citing?
The University Library also offers courses on citation for students and researchers (see
Chap. 5.6)
Why, when and what do I have to cite?
Why cite at all?
A key element of good scientific practice is making your results verifiable. One prerequisite
for this is attributing work to its proper author. For this reason, you have to reference the au-
thor every time you mention their ideas or results in your scientific work.
There are two reasons why we cite:
• Many works are protected by copyright law.
• The rules of good scientific practice require you to identify others' ideas (regardless of
whether they are protected by copyright law or not).
1
Position paper of the DFG („Safeguarding good scientific practice“)
2
German Copyright (Urheberrechtsgesetz) §51.
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With this in mind, the TUM has published the “Code of Conduct for Safeguarding Good Aca-
demic Practice and Procedures in Cases of Academic Misconduct at Technische Universität
München” (Technische Universität München, 2013).
When should I cite?
It is always recommended to cite when you ...
1. ... take information from external sources,
2. ... present previous research,
3. ... discuss the content of research, or
4. … establish a connection to your own research question (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1: Overview of citation purposes. Adapted from von Kessel, E. (2016, p. 151). Items
marked with * have been changed or added.
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Explanations and examples for the different citation options can be found in (Kessel, 2016,
pp. 151-164).
According to the rules of good scientific practice, you must cite everything that you have
taken from external sources both word for word and in terms of content.
General knowledge
Conversely, this also means:
You do not need to cite content that is available from many sources and is not new, contro-
versial, or unusual. This particularly relates to general knowledge (the fall of the Berlin wall
occurred on November 9, 1989, and the formula E = mc ² was written by Einstein) and basic
knowledge in your area of expertise (e.g. the laws of thermodynamics in physics).
There is, however, no clear boundary. As a rule of thumb, you can assume that knowledge
that can be found in a textbook for the corresponding Bachelor’s program, does not need to
be cited. Nevertheless, you should consider that, depending on your target audience, the
basic knowledge in your area of expertise might not be known to your reader and should,
therefore, be cited.
It may also matter, whether you are writing a Bachelor’s, Master’s, or doctoral thesis. At
Bachelor’s level, it would be more likely to cite more general sources. If you are uncertain
whether you have to cite, ask your supervisor. When in doubt: better cite than sorry.
Original & secondary citations
You should always cite the original source if it is possible. Citations of citations, so-called
secondary citations, you should only use if you cannot access the original source without
unreasonable difficulty. This particularly applies to review articles. More on secondary cita-
tions see Chapter 2.1.3
Citability
Sources should meet the required standards of scientific work. Depending on the purpose
of a citation you should choose the source accordingly. It might be appropriate to cite data
sets from a degree thesis if these are correctly cited; especially if the author supervised it
themselves and can therefore guarantee its quality.
In principle, you should try to find well-recognized sources. This is especially true for articles
from peer-reviewed journals and conference proceedings. Journals and proceedings which
can be found in big databases like Scopus or Web of Science, you can assume to meet the
quality requirements for good scientific sources. This is also true for books that have been
published by established publishing houses.
Sources that have not undergone quality assurance procedures such as a peer review pro-
cess, may be cited within certain limits (e.g. citation of a product data-sheet or the like).
In a scientific context, citing Wikipedia is viewed with skepticism. Reference lists are often
incomplete and the origin of the information given is unknown. Even if Wikipedia now places
increasing emphasis on references, it is always preferable to access and cite the original
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source. Moreover, Wikipedia articles can be manipulated easily and the author is often not
identifiable.
Copyright law and good scientific practice
Copyright law protects the author of a work from unauthorized use of their intellectual prop-
erty. This especially includes copying, editing, and distributing the work to protect the author
from financial loss.
But according to the German constitution (Art.14 Abs. 2) property should be used to the ben-
efit of the community. Due to this, the rights of the author are in certain respects limited.
These limiting regulations are called “statutory exceptions” (In German: ”Schrankenrege-
lungen”).
The most important limiting rule in this regard is the right to citation or "Zitatrecht" (§51
UrhG).
„Zulässig ist die Vervielfältigung, Verbreitung und öffentliche Wiedergabe eines veröffentlich-
ten Werkes zum Zweck des Zitats, sofern die Nutzung in ihrem Umfang durch den besonde-
ren Zweck gerechtfertigt ist. Zulässig ist dies insbesondere, wenn
• einzelne Werke nach der Veröffentlichung in ein selbständiges wissenschaftliches Werk
zur Erläuterung des Inhalts aufgenommen werden […]“
3
• Stellen eines Werkes nach der Veröffentlichung in einem selbständigen Sprachwerk an-
geführt werden,
• einzelne Stellen eines erschienenen Werkes der Musik in einem selbständigen Werk der
Musik angeführt werden.“
When does the right to citation (Zitatrecht) apply?
1. The citations must have a purpose. This means, there has to be a content-related connec-
tion between your work and the cited work. To illustrate this connection a substantive dis-
cussion of the cited work must be given in your work. Without this discussion, the citation
cannot be used.
2. Consequently, a citation for mere illustration, ornament, or workload reduction is not per-
mitted.
3. Always cite as much as necessary but as little as possible.
4. A quotation may not be altered.
5. The quoted text must be identified.
6. You must give a full reference to the source.
3
§ 51 Citations: The reproduction, distribution, and public performance of a published work for the purposes of
citation is permitted provided that the use is justified in its scope by the specific purpose. In particular, it is permis-
sible if individual works are used following their publication in an independent scientific work to illuminate its con-
tent [...] (Translation Karl Hughes, Technische Universität München, Language Center)
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You can easily remember the requirements for the right to cite using the PEMUC scheme:
Purpose of citation
Explanation
Minimum
Unchanged
Credit
The “Credit” part contains both the identification of the cited material as well as giving the full
reference.
Here is a handy checklist you can use to find out whether you are complying with copyright
law: “May I cite this publication?”
What is protected by copyright law? – §2 UrhG
“(1) Copyright law protects works of literature, science, and art. This includes
1. language works incl. written works, speeches, and computer programs,
2. musical works,
3. theatrical works including dance,
4. works of fine art including works of architecture and applied art as well as drafts of
such works,
5. photographic works including works created similarly to photographic works,
6. cinematographic works including works created similarly to cinematographic works,
7. illustrations of a scientific or technical nature, such as drawings, plans, maps,
sketches, tables, and three-dimensional representations.
(2) Works as defined by this law are only human intellectual creations”.
For a work to be protected by copyright law it has to have a perceptible form. Copyright law
applies only to direct citations, not to the idea itself.
Term of copyright protection
The copyright covers photographic works until 70 years after the death of the copyright
holder (§ 64 German Copyright Act); for simple photographs for 50 years after the appear-
ance of the photograph (§ 72 para. 3 of the Copyright Act). The period of protection expires
at the end of the 70th year after the author's death or at the end of the year 50 years after the
snapshot's appearance. After this time, the picture is copyright-free. Due to the rules of good
scientific practice, you still have to cite it. But now you are permitted to use the image beyond
the purpose of citation (substantiating an argument, used in an academic work).
Note that the copyright can be passed on to the author’s heirs or to a foundation especially
founded for the purpose to represent the author’s rights after his death.
Copyright allows you to quote in academic works. However, do not draw the reverse conclu-
sion from this that you do not need to cite the source of copyright-free content (e.g. because
the author has been dead for more than 70 years or the content has been published under a
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corresponding license). According to the rules of good scientific practice, you must cite all
content taken from other sources, regardless of whether it is protected by copyright or al-
ready in the public domain.
Good scientific practice
Copyright law has to be distinguished from the rules of good scientific practice, which should
ensure a high quality of scientific work (DFG, 2019; Technische Universität München, 2013).
Briefly summarized, good scientific practice involves:
• Documenting scientific findings comprehensibly, traceably, and accessibly.
• Consistently testing your findings and making them accessible for review and testing
by others.
• Maintaining integrity concerning contributions by partners, competitors, and prede-
cessors.
It is for these reasons that not only do direct quotations have to be cited but paraphrased
ideas as well.
More specifically this means …
• … you take the current state of research into account when planning your work. This
requires a careful review of the previously published works.
• … you do not pretend other people’s ideas are your own.
• … you cite other researchers’ findings and ideas.
• ... you do not make false statements or fabricate data.
• ... you objectively include all positions and findings and also publish results that chal-
lenge your hypothesis.
• ... you describe methods and outcomes to make your results verifiable.
• … you use scientifically sound and comprehensible methods.
• … you consider what the wider and ethical consequences of your research could be.
• ... you secure long-term access to your research results (at least ten years).
• … you publish only new scholarly results.
• … you do not publish your results in fragments to create the appearance of multiple
publications.
• … you acknowledge your responsibility if you are a co-author.
• … you do not sabotage the research of others.
• … you do not make false accusations.
• … that supervisors act as role models and live by the rules of good scientific practice.
• … that young researchers are appropriately supervised.
• … that originality and quality take precedence over quantity.
• … that academic misconduct is openly discussed. (DFG, 2019)
Plagiarism and how to avoid it
Plagiarism is when you present someone else’s work as your own.
To present someone else’s intellectual property as your own disagrees with the central rules
of good scientific practice. If citations are not marked as such, the reader is led to believe
that it is an academic work attributable to the author. Plagiarism is not about specific citation
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styles or oversights in citation, but about concealing external sources. It is where other au-
thors’ texts are included verbatim, paraphrased, or translated, but not marked as citations.
Plagiarism is a serious offense and may lead to the disqualification of an academic title, or
even criminal prosecution.
At TUM there is an ombudspersons’ office for good scientific practice, which among other
things, deals with cases of plagiarism. The ombudspersons’ office is responsible for receiving
and investigating complaints, settling them, or where appropriate taking action which might
include involving the TUM justice department.
4
There are different forms of plagiarism. The main types are
5
.
1. Complete plagiarism / copy & paste plagiarism: to use another author’s text un-
changed, without citation, and pretend it is one’s own work (VroniPlag Wiki -
Plagiatskategorien, 2014; Weber-Wulff, 2004a).
2. Clause splicing / Shake & paste plagiarism: combining fragments of different texts or
sentences to form a new text without citation, thus presenting it as one’s own line of
thought (Weber-Wulff, 2004a).
3. Idea plagiarism / obfuscation: presenting another author’s ideas in your own words with-
out citing the source (VroniPlag Wiki - Plagiatskategorien, 2014).
4. Translation plagiarism: Translating an original text from another language without citing
the source (VroniPlag Wiki - Plagiatskategorien, 2014; Weber-Wulff, 2004a).
5. Bibliography balloon: Listing references in the reference list that have not been cited in
the text (Projekt Refairenz, 2017).
6. Bibliography amnesia: giving in-text citations without listing the complete reference in
the reference list (Projekt Refairenz, 2017).
7. Pawn sacrifice: only part of the cited content is marked as a citation (VroniPlag Wiki -
Plagiatskategorien, 2014).
Note: Even if an author (e.g. a classmate) willingly consents to the uncited use of her text,
you are nevertheless guilty of plagiarism, unless you cite the contribution! (Neville, 2010, p.
30)
Plagiarism arises not only through failure to cite, but also then when you do reference an-
other’s work, but do not make it clear to the reader how far the citation extends. This hap-
pens, for example, when a summary gives the impression that it is the author’s own work
when it is not.
4
Further information under www.tum.de/ombudsperson, Email: [email protected]
5
See Neville, C. (2010). ¬The complete guide to referencing and avoiding plagiarism (2. ed.). Open Univ. Press. , Projekt
Refairenz. (2017, 01.03.2017). Plagiate verhindern – Ursachen kennen, Lehre gestalten, mit Fällen umgehen
[Präsentationsfolien zum Tagesworkshop für Lehrende]. Retrieved 04.09.2018 from https://www.plagiatspraevention.uni-
konstanz.de/typo3temp/secure_downloads/89992/0/869cb3b985b8c800442ca31ce26950cdee29c04b/Folien_Workshop_P
lagiate_vermeiden.pdf , VroniPlag Wiki - Plagiatskategorien. (2014). Retrieved 23.04.2014 from
http://de.vroniplag.wikia.com/wiki/VroniPlag_Wiki:Grundlagen/PlagiatsKategorien, Weber-Wulff, D. (2004a). Fremde
Federn Finden - Kurs über Plagiat; Kapitel 3.2 Wie wird plagiiert? Retrieved 23.04.2014 from http://plagiat.htw-
berlin.de/ff/schule/3_2/wie
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What can you do to avoid coming under suspicion?
Collect and organize your sources carefully from the start. Highlight important points in your
reading and excerpting, so that afterward you still know what you have read and where it
comes from. Even in all your written drafts, you should mark the sources and quotations. The
easiest way to organize knowledge and manage references is to use an appropriate system
from the outset. This can be a simple checklist, but the more usual working method these
days is to rely on dedicated software, such as the reference management programs Citavi or
EndNote. More on reference management programs in Chapter 5.
Proper time management is another way to avoid unintentional plagiarism caused by time
pressure. Make a list of all the tasks arising during your work and how much time you would
need for each task. Here you find a checklist to help you with that: “From empty sheet to fin-
ished thesis - Avoiding plagiarism with good time management” (German).
If there are tasks you are uncomfortable with, try to get help. The TUM offers a broad variety
of courses and services to support you with research, academic writing, or excerpting (see p.
2 of the checklist).
To build a solid basis for your citation practice, try to develop an inner citation compass using
the following four principles:
1. Principle 1: Usability - May I cite this source?
Before citing a source, you should always check whether you are permitted to cite it.
2. Principle 2: Authorship - Which ideas are mine, and which belong to someone else?
Always make sure to indicate the beginning and end of another author’s idea, as well
as the author.
3. Principle 3: Retrievability - Where does my information come from? Can my reader
find my sources?
Always make sure your reader has all the relevant information needed to find and
identify a source.
4. Principle 4: Consistency – Did I apply my chosen citation style consistently?
Choose one citation style and stick to it!
Make sure you always know …
1. what the purpose of your citation is
2. whether you meet all requirements to cite a copyright-protected source and
3. that your reader can find the original source.
Here are the four principles for printing: Citation in a nutshell – the four citation principles.
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How to cite in the text
How to cite?
You have two possibilities to cite foreign results and thoughts in your text, either directly, i.e.
verbatim, or indirectly, i.e. in your own words. When you rephrase a statement, it is called
paraphrasing.
Direct quotations
The sentence mentioned earlier from Umberto Eco, „Ein Buch zitieren, aus dem man einen
Satz übernommen hat, heißt Schulden zahlen“
6
is used exactly as in the original. It is quoted
directly, so it is quoted verbatim. Direct quotations are used when the exact wording is im-
portant. They are especially common in the humanities when dealing with a source. In the
natural sciences, it is mostly about the content of the statement, not how it was phrased.
Therefore, direct quotations are very rare in the natural sciences and should only be used
when the phrasing is crucial. This can be the case, for example, with definitions, standards,
or legal texts. Otherwise, you should use direct quotations extremely sparingly. Please note
the following:
Quotations have to be quoted exactly (that means letter for letter including old spelling or
spelling mistakes; how to mark those see below).
Quotation marks indicate a direct quote; longer quotations (three lines or more) are indi-
cated by the formatting. You can indent them, use italics, or set them in a smaller font. You
then do not need quotation marks.
Misspellings: Accept misspellings or special formatting as in the original source, such as
italics or bold; where there is a spelling error in the original source, identify it with the desig-
nation [sic]. "Sic" is Latin for "just like that." It shows your reader that you are aware of the er-
ror, but that it really did occur in the original source. A detached exclamation mark in square
brackets [!] is also sometimes used for this purpose. If you work a lot with historical sources,
it is advisable to dispense with this indication for old spelling.
Omissions: If you omit a part of the verbatim quote, you must indicate this with [...]. Bailey
(2011, p. 66) proposes only three dots ... for omissions, but three dots in round brackets are
also common (...). Base your style on the practices in your particular field and the selected
citation style.
6
“To cite a book from which one has taken a line, means to have paid one’s debts.” (Translation Karl Hughes, Technische
Universität München, Language Center)
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Additions: Your own additions or grammatical adjustments to the quoted sentence must be
identified, e.g. [Author’s note/Editor’s note/ed. Note], or for grammatical adjustments: Eco
notes that "to cite a book [...] means to have paid one’s debts [off]" (Eco, 2010, p. 213).
Emphases: Emphases, which are part of the original source, are maintained and marked,
e.g. [emphasis by the author / emphasis in original / emphasis + author’s initials]. As long as
it does not change the meaning, emphases may be omitted if marked e.g. by (Müller 2000, p.
33; without emphasis). Emphases added by you have to be marked, e.g. [my emphasis].
Original language: Always quote in the original language, and insert a translation for minor-
ity languages in a footnote. In this case, note who translated the quote (if you cite a transla-
tion, name the source if you translated it yourself add (translation by the author). Please
note, however, that paraphrases should always be in the same language as your own work.
Quotation within a quotation: If the verbatim quoted section already contains a quote, indi-
cate the outer quotation in single quotation marks. Depending on the language of your work it
may also be common to use single quotation marks around the outer quotation and double
quotation marks around the inner quotation.
Cite source: It varies depending on the citation style (see chapter 2.2) but it is always given
directly with the quotation.
Indirect quotations / Paraphrasing
To incorporate opinions or findings of other authors in your text, you do not need to quote
verbatim. You can also summarize their views or findings in your own words. This procedure
does not, however, relieve you of your obligation to cite the author, and to pay your debt!
You will by now be familiar with the phrase at the end of the last sentence. It refers back to
Umberto Eco (2010, p. 213). This way of referring to another author is known as an indirect
quotation (or: paraphrasing). In STM subjects (STM = science, technology, and medicine), as
well as the economic and social sciences, this is common practice.
You should consider the following:
Use your own words: Summarize what you have read in your own words; this automatically
means that you always cite indirectly in the same language as your own work.
Introductory phrases: If the formatting and source citation do not by themselves make it
sufficiently clear which content is your own and which you are indirectly citations, it makes
sense to use an introductory phrase: As Eco (2010) points out, by citing a work, one pays the
author back for the use of their idea.
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Position of in-text citation:
1. In introductory phrases: You can indicate the source at the beginning of the
sentence in an introductory phrase. In author-year styles, the author is then usu-
ally removed from the brackets of the source citation and placed in front of it. Ex-
ample: Müller (2004, p. 23) distinguishes between ... .
This method is also useful if you cite a longer section or an entire chapter from the
same source and do not want to cite the same source again after each sentence
or paragraph. This may be the case if you have a study that is fundamental to
your research and which you summarize in your paper to build on it. The prerequi-
site is that you truly cite from this source only.
Example: In the following three sections / chapter I summarize the results of Maier
(2011).
It is also common to indicate the source at the end of the sentence. A distinction is made
here between a reference within the sentence, which means before the full stop, and a refer-
ence that follows the sentence.
2. At the end of the sentence before the full stop: A reference made before the
full stop, which is still part of the sentence, refers only to the sentence in which it
is mentioned.
3. At the end of the sentence after the full stop: A reference after the sentence
refers to the entire paragraph, or up to the last-mentioned reference in this para-
graph.
4. Refer to a previously cited source: Sometimes you want to cite two or three
consecutive sentences from one source. However, you are not citing a whole par-
agraph. In this case, you can indicate the source in the introductory phrase of the
first sentence and refer back to this first sentence in the following sentences.
Example: Müller et al. (2018) studied the behaviour of .... . He discovered that, ...
. The assumption that, ... could not be confirmed. Instead, Müller et al. found that
... has an influence on ... .
5. Page numbers: In-text citations are usually given with a page number. In some
disciplines, it is also common to omit the page number. When making your deci-
sion, always bear in mind that you want to make your argument as traceable as
possible - a page number helps your reader to check your arguments.
Vgl.: In German, in some subject areas and citation styles, it is common to insert vgl. before
indirect quotations, e.g. (vgl. Eco 2010, p. 213). Cf. is not equivalent to the German vgl. alt-
hough many dictionaries offer it as a translation. In English academic writing, indirect quota-
tions should be cited directly (without cf. or see). Cf. or see provide further references to
compare either similar or contrasting arguments or information.
Multiple citation: To add support or emphasis to an argument or to demonstrate that the lit-
erature is unanimous in this respect, it is possible to insert a multiple citation. The citation
would look like this: (see for instance Author1, 2010, p.1; Author2, 2011, p.2; Author3, 2014,
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p.5.). Depending on the subject area and selected citation style, the in-text attribution may be
omitted: (Author1, 2010, p.1; Author2, 2013, p.2).
If you are unsure how to include indirect quotations in your text, you can find examples of
wording grouped by the purpose of the citation in German in Kühtz (2016, pp. 73-106) and in
English in Morley (2015).
Secondary citations
Before using a secondary citation, always try to obtain the original source, check the state-
ment, and then quote the original source directly. As a rule of thumb, you could say that eve-
rything that can be procured via the Germany-wide interlibrary loan must be procured. Only if
this is not possible, use secondary citations. If secondary citations are used too often without
being checked, a kind of Chinese whispers syndrome can occur, in which the original content
is further and further changed until it can no longer be recognized. If you cannot avoid using
a secondary citation, you have three different options how to do it:
You provide both primary and secondary sources. In the text, the source is then cited e.g.
like this: (Müller 2011, p. 50 cites Meier 2010, p. 100) or in number style [21 cites 5]. In the
reference list, cite both sources individually. The in-text citation of the source shows that you
have not read the primary source yourself.
However, opinions differ as to whether the original source, in this case, Meier 2010, should
be listed in the reference list. On one hand, the reference list usually only lists sources that
have been read and cited by the author, on the other hand, you make it easier for your
reader to access the original source, which is the reader’s actual destination.
The original source is only mentioned in a footnote. Only works that you have read and cited
yourself are mentioned in the reference list. This would be the secondary source that you
have read - in this case, Müller 2011. However, since Müller 2011 is not the author of the
statement, you indicate the original source in a footnote, which then does not appear in the
reference list.
The in-text citation could look like this: (Müller 2011, p. 50)² or [21]².
In the footnote: (Müller 2011) / [21] cited [here you name the full reference of the original
source].
The original source is mentioned in the text only. In the reference list, just works that you
have read and cited yourself are given. In the text, you could then refer to the original source
with a sentence like this: Müller (2011, p. 50) refers in his work to a text by Meier from 2010
with the title ..., which cannot be found.
Citation systems and citation styles
To enhance readability, one generally avoids writing the complete source one is acknowledg-
ing directly after the quote in the text. Rather, we use a kind of placeholder that links to the
full reference in the reference list at the end of the work.
Depending on the citation system and the citation style, placeholders and full references look
different. We differentiate between three different citation systems: author-year, number, and
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footnote. Each of these citation systems has hundreds of different citation styles. The citation
style defines exactly how the in-text citation and the full reference in the reference list should
look like.
a. author-year system
In-text citation:
• with full name, e.g. Meyer (2011), (Meyer 2011), (Meyer 11) or
• the abbreviated name, e.g. (MEY 11) or [MEY11]
In the reference list:
• (Meyer 2011) Meyer, Michael: Title. Place: Publisher, 2011 or
• Meyer, Michael (2011): Title. Place: Publisher.
b. Number system
In-text citation:
• [5] or (5)
In the references:
• [5] Meyer, Michael: Title. Place: Publisher, 2011.
c. Citation key system
In-text citation:
• [Mey11] or (Mey11)
In the references:
• [Mey11] Meyer, Michael: Title. Place: Publisher, 2011.
• (Mey11) Meyer, Michael: Title. Place: Publisher, 2011.
d. Footnote system
In-text citation:
• e.g. quotation²
In the references:
• as a rule, on the first mention, the full reference appears at the bottom of the page:
____________________
² Meyer, Michael: Title. Place: Publisher, 2011
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• for all other entries of the same title, it is usually sufficient, depending on the citation
style, to insert a short citation at the end of the page:
____________________
³ Meyer 2011
• Particularly in European citation styles, if the same page in the same work has al-
ready been directly cited earlier, the Latin abbreviation ibid. (ibidem) may be used.
While its use is declining, reference management programs will insert it, again de-
pending on the citation style, automatically.
____________________
² Meyer 2011, p. 2
³ ibid.
Citation styles
There is a large number of recognized citation styles. Academics and publishers develop and
maintain these different styles. Therefore, almost every modern academic field, and almost
every publisher and journal have their own rules for the correct formatting of citations.
Which citation style should I use?
• If you publish in a journal or a textbook, the citation style is determined by the re-
quirements set by the editor or publisher.
• If you are a student writing your final paper, always ask your supervisor or the de-
partment which style to use.
• If there is no set style, see chapter 6 where you will find three established citation
styles you can use. If there is a standard style for your field, use this. In addition, you
have the option of citing according to DIN ISO 690 - this citation standard is recog-
nized throughout Germany.
Along with formatting rules for your references, the in-text citation also follows the particular
citation style.
Some general information:
If a work is written by three or more than three authors, there is a special set of rules de-
pending on the selected citation style. Bailey (2011) recommends that where there are three
or more authors in an in-text citation, only the first be specified and all further author names
be replaced with “et al.” (Bailey, 2011, p. 69). For example: where a work is co-authored by
Franz Müller, Joseph Mayer, and Sebastian Schmitt 2012, the in-text citation names only the
first author and adds et. al. for all other authors. (Müller et al., 2012, p.5). In the reference list,
all authors are listed. Incidentally, if you are using reference management software, the refer-
ence is automatically inserted according to the specifications of the selected citation style;
you do not need to concern yourself further.
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If you are referring to a specific place in an article or book, you should specify it as pre-
cisely as possible, i.e. insert page numbers or other numbering used in the article in your in-
text citation. The particular citation style governs how the page number is inserted in the cita-
tion. This often happens after a comma with "p.", e.g. (Meyer 2011, p. 3), (MEY 11, p. 3), [5,
p. 3].
When you quote an entire section from a book or article, you should cite once at the be-
ginning or end of the quotation, not after each sentence. Make it clear that your citation refers
to the whole section, not only to the first or last sentence, e.g. “The following section summa-
rizes the results from [9].
If details are missing, e.g. the author, the year, or the location of publication, you may point
this out by using the following abbreviations. This shows that your work is not simply sloppy
but that despite further research you could not identify the missing information.
• Author: o.V. (ohne Verfasser), N.N. (nomen nescio), or N.U. (name unknown)
• Year: o.J. (ohne Jahr), s.a. (sine annum), n.y. (no year) or n.d. (no date)
• Location: o.O. (ohne Ort), s.l. (sine locum) or n.p. (no place)
If there are no authors specified for a source, often the publishing institution or company
takes the authors' place.
Examples of current citation styles (taken from the reference management software, Citavi,
read more in chapter 6):
Citation in science, technology, and medicine (STM)
Academic achievements in the STM subjects are in most cases not dependent on their exact
wording, but are theories, theorems, studies, experimental results, etc., and are usually cited
indirectly. In-text citations are indicated with short citations (numbers or author-year system);
footnotes are not usual.
Figure 2: Citation styles APA 7th, IEEE Editorial and Chicago notes 16th
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Direct quotations are rare and should only be used when the precise formulation is important.
It is not always customary to put these in quotation marks, e.g. if you “word-for-word” quote a
formula or a mathematical theorem.
When citing, you can mention the author in the text or only in a short citation.
Examples:
Since the solutions to this equation are always limited [8, Theorem 1.7], it follows that...
As mentioned before you should always if you refer to a particular place in an article or book,
specify them as accurately as possible, i.e. insert page numbers or a different numbering (as
in the last example), which is used in the article in the short reference.
Citation in the economic and social sciences
Indirect quotes are very common in economics and social sciences. It is important that you
reformulate what you have read in your own words and not simply change a few words in the
passage quoted.
Direct quotations are also common in economics and social sciences but should be used
sparingly and only used when it is essential to reproduce the exact wording of a line of argu-
ment or an opinion. You can also mark longer direct quotations from your body text by for-
matting, for example, by indenting the quote (left or right) or using italics. You then do not
need to use quotation marks. Be careful to reproduce the quotation exactly and identify omis-
sions with an ellipsis (three dots) in square brackets.
To mark quotations in the text, two main systems are common in economics and social sci-
ences: the short citation using the author-year system, and the footnote system.
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How do I list different sources in the reference list?
And what do I have to consider?
A list of references is always found at the end of a chapter or work and you must cite all
literature that was used, whether directly quoted or indirectly.
The list must be prepared following uniform rules (in the selected citation style). The titles
are either sorted alphabetically by the author's surname or numerically according to
the order of their appearance in the text.
If you cite multiple publications by the same author within the same year these are marked
by e.g. using lowercase letters: Example: Eco (2010a), Eco (2010b).
If a publication has no author or editor, you sort by the first significant word in the title.
Some journal publishers require items to be sorted in the order in which they were first men-
tioned in your work. This arrangement of the titles in the list of references is particularly popu-
lar for shorter publications or works in which very little literature is cited and is used only with
the number system.
Elements of a Source Citation
Below you will find examples of how different document types are indicated in the reference
list. Sometimes, however, a document type cannot be clearly determined, or the citation style
used, does not offer a definition for this document type. It is therefore necessary that you find
a solution yourself that comes as close as possible to the citation style.
In principle, every source citation must answer these four questions:
Who created the work? The author, artist, or, if no person is named, the publishing institution
is indicated here.
What kind of work is it? Here you give the title and, in the case of rare document types, a de-
scription of the source in square brackets.
When was the work published? Here you give the year of publication, the date of the last up-
date, or the posting date.
Where: Where was the work published or where can the reader find it? Here the type of in-
formation can be quite different. For books, the publisher and the place of publication are
given; for journal articles, the name of the journal plus the year, volume, issue, and page
number; for websites, you provide the URL; for materials that are only found in an archive,
the name of the archive and, depending on the citation style, the archive shelfmark.
Unless otherwise indicated, the references for all the following examples are formatted ac-
cording to the rules of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association 7
th
edition (American Psychological Association, 2020).
Depending on the type of publication, the complete list of references contains various ele-
ments. The specifications can be found in the respective style guides or publication manuals.
Some citation styles prescribe that author names be written out in full while others require the
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abbreviated (initialized) first names. Generally, it is easier for your reader to trace sources
back when the author's name is given in full. In our examples, given the very wide adherence
to the APA style, we have held to the requirement of the Publication Manual by the American
Psychological Association, where first names are always abbreviated.
According to APA style guidelines, the author’s name is always followed by a full stop. If the
author is a person there is already a full stop due to the abbreviated first name. However, if
the author is an institution the full stop is either added manually or automatically by your ref-
erence management program. There are never two full stops in a row.
Electronic publications
In general, the same requirements apply to electronic publications as their printed equiva-
lents: author(s), title, journal title, issue number, volume number, and year of publication
must be specified for articles from e-journals, just as for printed journal articles. It makes
sense, however, to provide extra information where available (e.g. the DOI). Your readers
will be able to trace the source more easily. At present, it is recommended to give the DOI as
a clickable link „http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-02511-3“ instead of „doi:10.1007/978-3-
658-02511-3“ (Pampel, 23.09.2016).
Blog posts
[Author last name], [author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year, Month in words day)]. [Title of
post]. [Title of blog]. [URL]
Pampel, H. (2016, September 23). Wie zitiere ich ein DOI korrekt? wisspub.net - Gemein-
schafts-blog zu wissenschaftlicher Kommunikation im Netz.
https://wisspub.net/2016/09/23/wie-zitiere-ich-ein-doi-korrekt/
Depending on the reference management program you use the representation of the source
may differ. Some citation styles indicate the type of source after the title e.g. „Online“ or
„Blog“.
Book / E-Books
Printed books
[Author last name], [author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year of publication)]. [Title
7
]. [(Edi-
tion)].[Publisher].
Burgess, R. (2019). Rethinking global health: Frameworks of power. Routledge.
7
If there is a subtitle, it is added to the title after a colon and a space.
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E-Books
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year)]. [Title] [Edition]. [Publisher].
[DOI/URL]
Brink, A. (2013). Anfertigung wissenschaftlicher Arbeiten: ein prozessorientierter Leitfaden
zur Erstellung von Bachelor-, Master- und Diplomarbeiten. (5th ed.). Springer Gabler.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-02511-3
Book chapter or article from a book / E-Book
Chapter from a printed book:
[Author last name], [author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year of publication)]. [Title of Chap-
ter]. [In] [Editor(s) first name(s) abbreviated] [Editor(s) last name] [(Ed./Eds.
8
)], [Title of book]
[(Edition ed., p./pp. xx-xx)
9
]. [Publisher].
Gander, H.-H. (2010). Verdoppelung der Stimme - Zur Funktion des Zitats als Autoritätsge-
winn. In J. Jacob & M. Mayer (Eds.), Im Namen des anderen - Die Ethik des Zitierens (1st
ed., pp. 19-31). Fink.
Chapter from an E-Book
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year of publication)]. [Chapter title].
[In] [A. Editor & B. Editor (Ed./Eds.)], [Book title] [(Edition ed., p./pp. xx-xx)]. [Publisher]. [DOI
as URL/URL most closely linked to chapter]
Schieker, M., Neugebauer, E. A. M., Mutschler, W., Claes, L., Maegele, M., & Sauerland, S.
(2011). Projektdurchführung. In E. A. M. Neugebauer, W. Mutschler & L. Claes (Eds.), Von
der Idee zur Publikation (2nd ed., pp. 79-100). Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-
16069-1_4
Dissertation/Thesis
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year of publication)]. [Title]. [[Type of
university writing, University]]. [Database or archive]. [URL]
Ehlers, W. (1989). Poröse Medien: Ein kontinuumsmechanisches Modell auf der Basis der
Mischungstheorie. [Habilitation, Universität-Gesamthochschule Essen].
Hutcheson, V. H. (2012). Dealing with dual differences: Social coping strategies of gifted and
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer adolescents [Master’s thesis, The College of
William & Mary]. William & Mary Digital Archive. https://digitalarchive.wm.edu/bitstream/han-
dle/10288/16594/HutchesonVirginia2012.pdf
8
Ed. for one editor, Eds. if there is more than one editor.
9
p. for one page, pp. for several pages.
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Unpublished theses
Harris, L. (2014). Instructional leadership perceptions and practices of elementary school
leaders [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Virginia.
Entry in an online encyclopedia
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year of publication)]. [Title of Article].
In [Editor’s first name abbreviated] [Editors last name] (Ed./Eds.), [Title of encyclopedia]
[(Edition ed.)].
10
[Publisher]. [URL]
Graham G. (2019). Behaviorism. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philoso-
phy (Summer 2019 ed.). Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/en-
tries/behaviorism/
Without publication year
If the dictionary is updated regularly, the year of publication is replaced by (n.d.) and the URL
is preceded by a retrieval date in the form of Retrieved [month written out in full] [Day], [ear],
from [URL].
Example.: Retrieved May 5, 2019, from https://...
Images
Images are protected by copyright law!
Under German law, each image (= photographic work, and photographs) enjoys copy-
right protection from its inception.
A copyright symbol, sometimes denoted with (©), is not necessary and does not influence
the copyright. Each of the above-described works enjoys copyright protection from the mo-
ment it comes into existence without having to be applied for. Copyright protection includes
the author's personal rights (e.g. the right to be named as the author and not to be misrepre-
sented) as well as the so-called exploitation rights (e.g. duplication, public broadcasting, or
display).
The Copyright Act distinguishes between:
• photographic works (= photograph with a certain degree of creativity, according to
article § 2 para. 1 no. 5 of the Copyright Act),
• photographs (= photograph, any arbitrary snapshot, § 72 of the Copyright Act), and
• other images e.g. technical drawings.
10
e.g. (4. ed.) for 4
th
edition.
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Other images
Other images (e.g. technical drawings) are only protected by copyright law if they meet the
necessary level of creativity; this means they can be distinguished from program-generated
images through the author’s personal creative contribution.
Term of copyright protection
The copyright covers photographic works until 70 years after the death of the copyright
holder (§ 64 German Copyright Act); for simple photographs for 50 years after the appear-
ance of the photograph (§ 72 para. 3 of the Copyright Act). The period of protection expires
at the end of the 70th year after the author's death or at the end of the year, 50 years after
the snapshot's appearance. After this time, the picture is copyright-free. Due to the rules of
good scientific practice, you still have to cite it. But now you are permitted to use the image
beyond the purpose of citation (see Chapter 1.2).
When may I cite an image in my work?
You may use pictures according to the right of citation (Zitatrecht, see Chapter 1.2). Note,
that all transformations or alterations to the works may be done only with the permis-
sion of the copyright holder (§ 23 German Copyright Act). This includes image fragments,
translations, and additions.
Example 1: For your dissertation, you use a published image of an experimental setup that
you need as a basis for further experiments described in your work. You discuss the image
thoroughly. You cite the source correctly.
Let’s check the usage by applying the PEMUC scheme:
Purpose of citation: Experimental design that forms the basis of further investigation (= pur-
pose of citation is given).
Explanation: The picture is explained in detail.
Minimum: Since you are not allowed to change the image, you may and must quote the com-
plete image. Since the image is necessary for the description of your procedure, this require-
ment is also fulfilled.
Unchanged: You have not changed the image.
Credit: You have indicated the source with a brief reference in the caption. The complete
source is mentioned in the reference list.
Conclusion: The image citation is permitted.
Example 2: For your dissertation, you use a photograph from a historical picture. The picture
is not necessary for your argumentation but merely for illustration. The photographer died
more than 70 years ago. You cite the source correctly.
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Purpose of citation: Not given
Explanation: No explanation, only used for illustrations.
Minimum: You use the entire image.
Unchanged: You have not changed the image.
Credit: You have indicated the source with a short reference in the caption. The complete
source is mentioned in the bibliography.
Conclusion: You may not use this picture within the scope of the right of citation. But since
the author has been dead for more than 70 years, the picture is no longer protected by copy-
right. It is now in the public domain and may be used. As always in a scientific context, you
name the source.
What do I do if ...
1 ... the image I want to cite has not yet been published?
→ Ask the author if you are allowed to cite their image and reference the image as an un-
published work with a corresponding reference in the reference list (see Chapter 3.18). In
rare cases, you publish the image in the place and name of the author. In this case, there is
no reference in the reference list. Instead, you refer to the author in a note, e.g. with a phrase
like "Printed with the kind permission of [name of author].
2 ... the image was published in a journal?
→ Cite it like any other source. If you meet the requirements of the citation right, you do not
need special permission from the publisher - even if the publisher offers permission.
3 ... I do not explain the image in the text?
→ If your picture is neither in the public domain nor published under a matching license,
please ask the copyright holder for permission. The rights holder can be the author, but also
a publisher who has acquired the sole (exclusive) rights of use from the author.
4 ... I want to change the image (e.g. use a section, translate, add details, omit details,
change the display)?
→ Ask the copyright holder for permission or create your own image. More about this in
Chapter 3.6.4
5 ... the image comes from a standard?
→ An image in a standard may replace the entire standard. If you use this image in your own
work, this can damage the economic exploitability of the standard. For this reason, be partic-
ularly careful when using images from standards. For more information, see Chapter 3.16.
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Permissions for the use of images beyond the right of citation
If an image is not citable under copyright law, you can cite it if you have the consent of the
copyright holder to use an image. This consent may be given orally. However, if you want to
be on the safe side, you might want to ask for written consent. To do so, it is important to be
sure you actually know who owns the copyright. The exploitation rights to an image can also
be transferred to a publisher, for example, if the author of the image has already published it
and signed a corresponding contract.
Balzert et al. (2013, p. 190) provide an important source for obtaining image rights: VG Bild-
Kunst. This collecting society (i.e. VG Wort) issues printing permissions for most living artists
and photographers. However, in many cases, the images you want to use, will not be from
artists or photographers. In these cases, please contact the author or the publisher directly to
obtain the necessary rights.
Creative Commons licenses offer another form of written consent for the use of images.
These licenses allow the copyright owner to offer the public expanded exploitation rights.
Creative Commons licenses thus always extend the provisions of copyright law. For more
information, see Section 4.1 below.
May I change an image?
If you cite images, you always cite the entire work and thus quote directly. Which means you
may not change the work. If you still want to change the image, you have two possibilities:
1. get permission from the copyright holder, or
2. cite indirectly (paraphrase).
When you cite an image indirectly, you take the idea and create your own image - giving the
idea a new appearance. As with all indirect citations, you specify the source on which your
image is based. The in-text citation in the caption should indicate whether it is the original im-
age or whether the original just served as the basis for your own illustration. You can indicate
this by using an introductory phrase like:
• Based on ... / Inspired by ...
• Adapted from ... / Modified from ...
What else do I have to consider when using (my own) photos?
Copyright on depicted motifs
When using images, you also need to respect the copyright of the depicted subject. This
is in addition to the copyright of the author of the image itself, for example, in works of art or if
buildings are depicted.
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Architectural and artistic works are protected by copyright. You, therefore, need the con-
sent of the architect and the artist, even if you have taken the photograph yourself. This cop-
yright protection expires 70 years after the creator's death.
There is an exception to this rule: You are permitted to make use of the so-called “Panora-
mafreiheit” (freedom of panorama). You may publish photographs of the exterior of a build-
ing without special permission if it is located on a public street or a public place perma-
nently
11
(§ 59 German Copyright Act). The freedom of panorama also includes works of art
when they are situated in a public area. The reproduction (photo or video) must, however, be
made from a publicly accessible place. A picture that is e.g. taken from the window of a build-
ing across the street does not qualify as publicly accessible. If the building is not in a publicly
accessible area, or the picture is of the building's interior, the consent of the architect must
be obtained.
Domiciliary rights
When recording within buildings and real estate, e.g. stations, stadiums, or private houses,
domiciliary rights must be observed. Unauthorized pictures constitute a violation of general
personal rights. Again, therefore, the consent of the holder must be obtained before publish-
ing.
Right to your own image / personal rights of depicted persons
If people are visible in a photograph, you also have to be careful: only with the consent of the
persons depicted, may such images be circulated. This also applies to X-ray images
12
. You
will find the relevant provisions in § 22 KUG (Law on Copyright in Works of Fine Art and Pho-
tography). Exceptions to the law include persons recorded as an “incidental addition to a
landscape”, public figures, or persons that are recorded as part of a gathering, etc. (§ 23
KUG).
Special case: Screenshots
Screenshots can be a useful way of supporting your text. Whether you are allowed to cite
screenshots depends on what is shown. The key distinction here is whether the content is
protected by copyright law or not; the rules from Chapter 3.6.5 apply. This chapter summa-
rizes the content of (Steinhau, 2020).
The condition for citing a screenshot is that the screenshot shows a legal and published
source and that you provide a full reference – as for all images.
11
Works of art which are located in a place only temporarily are explicitly excluded. Example: The wrapped Ger-
man Reichstag
12
An X-ray can be used to identify a person. Therefore, if you want to use X-ray images, always make sure that
you obtain the permission of the person depicted.
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What does the screenshot show?
• User interfaces
Small symbols and icons are usually not protected. Screenshots of user interfaces that show
navigation panels or functional elements can therefore usually be cited.
• Photographs, images, videos, works of art, computer games, or multi-media appli-
cations
Use permitted as per citation law (see Chapter 1.2) or with permission of the rights holder.
• Illustrations, Infographics, etc.
Use permitted as per citation law (see Chapter 1.2) or with permission of the rights holder.
• Maps
See Chapter 3.10
• Text (+image) content from newspapers, journals, websites, and e-books
Use permitted as per citation law (see Chapter 1.2) or with permission of the rights holder.
• Logos, trademarks, and composite marks
Use permitted as per citation law (see Chapter 1.2) or with permission of the rights holder.
Important: The impression should not be created that the company the logo represents, has
contributed to the cited work. The logo should also not be used for commercial purposes
without permission.
• People
Use only with the copyright holder’s permission. This also applies to webinars, video confer-
ences, and video chats.
• Free licensed works / open content (e.g. Creative Commons)
Use permitted as per citation law (see Chapter 1.2) or via the license granted. If the work is
used beyond the right of citation, the license conditions must be complied with. These often
specify how the source and license information should be indicated.
If a screenshot contains individual elements of which you are not sure whether they are pro-
tected by copyright law, and the use is not covered by citation right, you can conceal this
content (pixelate, blur, black out, or remove).
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Captions and list of figures
Images (your own or other people’s) should be numbered and titled in your work (number
and title, for images above, for tables below). All images should be listed in a separate table
of figures.
If images, etc. are taken from other works, you must, in addition to numbering and titles,
specify the source from which you took them. The citation is done in the form used else-
where in the work, e.g. in a footnote, or in short form directly after the title.
Charts are treated as figures and as such are listed in the list of figures. Information on the
design of charts according to TUM corporate design guidelines can be found here:
https://portal.mytum.de/corporatedesign/index_html/regeln/index_diagramme (page only
available in German).
Example of an image with the source cited in the references:
The work referred to in the citation must be listed in the reference list.
The table of figures is located at the beginning or end of the work (but before the references)
and lists all images in numerical order. The sources of the images (books, webpages, etc.)
appear in the full list of references.
Example of a List of Figures:
Figure 1: The Spatial Distribution of Branch Libraries p.4
Figure 2: Organizational Structure of the University Library p.10
Figure 3: Flow Chart for Book Purchase p. 14
Figure 4: Acquisition Profile for Engineering / Science p. 15
Figure 3: How Plagiarism Works (Weber-Wulff, 2004b)
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Source citation in the reference list
Images from printed works
Stahl, C., & Klauer, K.C. (2008). A Simplified Conjoint Recognition Paradigm for the Meas-
urement of Gist and Verbatim Memory. [Infographic]. Journal of Experimental Psychology.
Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34 (3), 570-586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-
7393.34.3.570
The corresponding schema would look like this:
[First Author’s last name], [First Author’s first name abbreviated], [further author names like
the first one], & [last author, like the first one] [(Publication year)]. [Title]. [Type of image].
[Journal title], [Volume], [(Issue)], [Pages]. [URL]
Images from the internet (with and without license)
[Author’s last name], [Author’s first name abbreviated]. [(Publication year)]. [Title of the image
if available, otherwise short description of the image in square brackets]. [Type of image]. [Ti-
tle of website]. [URL]. [License]
Example: McCurry, S. (1985). Afghan girl [Photograph]. National Geographic.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/national-geiographic-magazine-50-years-of-
covers/#/ngm-1985-jun-714.jpg
If the image has no title, add a short description of the image in the bracket with the image
type. This can look like this, for example:
Rinaldi, J. (2016). [Photograph series of a boy who finds his footing after abuse by those he
trusted]. The Pulitzer Prizes. https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/jessica-ninaldi
If the image was published under a creative commons license or a comparable license, add
the following information before the URL:
[Name of license including a link to the license text].
If your work is a printed work, write out the link to the license text.
Here are two examples of images from the internet with a license:
Weber-Wulff, D. (2004b). [Clip art, Scissors with paper scraps]. Kurs über Plagiat - Fremde
Federn Finden. 3.2 Wie wird plagiiert? Retrieved July 17, 2015, from http://plagiat.htw-ber-
lin.de/ff-alt/03schule/wie.html. LGPL-2.0 http://www.gnu.org/licenses/old-licenses/lgpl-2.0
Aquila, M. (2006). Theft. [Photograph]. Flickr. Retrieved on May 26, 2015, from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/ibcbulk/256435870. CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0
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Please note that pictures sourced from image databases like Fotolia, Shutterstock, or Pixelio
have to be referenced as defined in the terms of use by the image database’s agency.
13
Interview
Interviews, which can be found printed in a magazine, for example, are citable and ap-
pear in the reference list. Harvey (2008, p. 69) provides the following example (formatted in
CMS Style):
3. Candace Caldwell, "Lust of the Eye," interview by Malcolm Strong, Visual Arts, June 1995,
23-29.
The APA Publication Manual also provides examples of how interviews are cited. Interviews
can be published in newspapers, magazines, radio shows, podcasts, television shows, etc.
Cite the interview in each case like the publishing source.
Interview printed in a newspaper
Bustillos, M. (2013). On video games and storytelling: An interview with Tom Bissel. The
New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/on-video-games-and-storytell-
ing-an-interview-with-tom-bissel
Interview recorded on a radio broadcast
De Beauvoir, S. (1960, May 4). Simone de Beauvoir discusses the art of writing [Interview].
Studs Terkel Radio Archive; The Chicago History Museum. https://studsterkel.wfmt.com/pro-
grams/simone-de-beauvoir-discusses-art-writing
If the name of the person interviewed is not mentioned in the reference, include it in the title.
For interviews that are recorded and preserved in a digital or physical archive, credit the in-
terviewee as the author.
Interviews that you have conducted yourself, should be marked accordingly in the text.
Kamasin and Ribing (2011, p. 150) recommend specifying the following data:
• Academic title of the interviewee
• First name and last name
• Function in company (in the organization, at the institution)
• Company, institution address (no private address!)
• Exact date and time
Example:
Interview was conducted with:
Dr. John Doe
Managing Director of Whatnot GmbH
13
TUM-Circular from 20.01.2016:
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1, Anywhere St., 11111 Nowheresville
January 1, 2011
A self-conducted interview may be added to the appendix of your work. Obtain consent from
your interviewee before you use any part of the interview and the form in which you wish to
use it.
Journal articles (print and online)
Printed journal articles
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year of publication)]. [Title of article].
[Journal title], [Band / Volume][(Heft / Issue / Number)], [Page numbers
14
].
Schanz, M. & Diebels, S. (2003). A comparative study of Biot’s theory and the linear theory
of porous media for wave propagation problems. Acta Mechanica, 161(3-4), 213-235.
Electronic journal articles
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year of publication)]. [Title of Article].
[Title of the Journal], [Volume(Issue)], [Pages]. [DOI as URL/URL]
Bryson, D. (2013). Referencing web pages and e-journals. Journal of Visual Communication
in Medicine, 36(3-4), 146-149. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109 / 17453054.2013.851649
Laws
Laws are not protected by copyright (§ 5 UrhG
15
) and can therefore be cited without issue. At
the first mention of a law in a text, its complete title is mentioned; once an abbreviation is es-
tablished, it is used in subsequent mentions (example: § 51 Gesetz über Urheberrecht und
verwandte Schutzrechte (Urheberrechtsgesetz), thereafter, § 51 UrhG).
The rules of good scientific practice require that the sources which are referenced are
marked as precisely as possible. The examples of citations from legal texts given in the APA
style manual are tailored to American legal texts. We, therefore, recommend that you use the
same citation style as Brink (2013, p. 224 Fig. 7.2) for the short in-text citation:
§ [number] paragraph [number] sentence [number] [law (abbr.)]
Examples:
§ 433 para. 2 (BGB
16
)
§ 9 para. 1 sentence 1 EStG
17
14
With journals there is never p./pp. given.
15
German Copyright Law
16
German Civil Code
17
German Income Tax Act
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§§ 51 UrhG and 52a UrhG
§§ 346 ff. (BGB)
Some laws have articles instead of paragraphs, e.g. the German Grundgesetz (GG) and all
Bavarian laws (e.g. the Bavarian Higher Education Act). One then writes e.g. Art. 1 Abs. 1
GG.
The abbreviations used for short in-text citations should always be included in the list of ab-
breviations.
Whether or not you also include the laws from which you cite in your references depends on
the conventions of your subject. Please follow the recommendation of your supervisor. If you
do choose to include an entry in the references, the official publication of a law should always
be indicated there.
Examples of legal references in the references:
Urheberrechtsgesetz vom 9. September 1965 (BGBl. I S. 1273), das zuletzt durch Artikel 1
des Gesetzes vom 20. Dezember 2016 (BGBl. I S. 3037) geändert worden ist.
18
Bundesnaturschutzgesetz vom 29. Juli 2009 (BGBl. I S. 2542), das durch Artikel 19 des Ge-
setzes vom 13. Oktober 2016 (BGBl. I S. 2258) geändert worden ist.
19
You can also find detailed information on citing laws and regulations of all kinds in the Hand-
buch der Rechtsförmlichkeit by the Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz
(Part B, Chapter 3)
20
.
For judgements and decisions, Brink (2013, Fig. 7.3) recommends the following model:
[Court (abbr.)], [Type (abbr.)] on [Date of decision] – [Reference number], [Location], [Cita-
tion]
Examples:
BFH, B. v. 23.07.1999 - VI B 116/99, BStBl 1999, II, p. 684.
BFH, U. v. 17.12.1986 - VII R 34/86, BStBl 1986 II, p. 123.
18
Copyright Act of 9 September 1965 (BGBl. I S. 1273 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 1273)), most recently amended
by Article 1 of the Law of 20 December 2016 (BGBl. I S. 3037 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 3037)). (Translation:
Karl Hughes, Technische Universität München, Language Center; emphasis TUM)
19
Federal Nature Conservation Act of 29 July 2009 (BGBl. I S. 2542 (Federal Law Gazette I p. 2542)), which has
been amended by Article 19 of the Act of 13 October 2016 (BGBl. I S. 2258 (Federal Law Gazette I p. 2258)).
(Translation: Karl Hughes, Technische Universität München, Language Center; emphasis TUM)
20
Manual of Technical Legal Formality Part B, Chapter 3 by the Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protec-
tion
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EuGH, U. v. 5.10.1994, Rs. C-280/93, Deutschland/Kommission, ECR I-4973 = NJW 1995,
945 = EuZW 1994, 688 - Bananenverordnung
21
.
Judgements and rulings are usually not listed in the references but in a separate reference
list. The information there corresponds to the references in the text.
Basic citation model for commentaries (Brink, 2013 Fig. 7.5)
[Name], [First name], in: [Name of the founder/publisher], [Keyword], [Citation]
Example:
Short citation in Footnote
See Birk, D., in: Herrmann, C., Heuer, G., Raupach, A., EStG- und KStG-Kommentar, on §
11 EStG, note 28.
See Kister, J.-H. in: Herrmann, C., Heuer, G., Raupach, A., EstG- und KStG-Kommentar,
§ 11b Sonderbehandlung von Erhaltungsaufwand bei Baudenkmalen
If the author of the comment to be cited is not known, the first part of the citation model
([name], [first name], in:) is omitted:
See Herrmann C., Heuer, G., Raupach, A., EStG- und KStG-Kommentar, on § 11 EStG, note
28.
Short citation in Author-Year style
From Brink's example for footnote styles, we derived the following scheme for author-year
styles:
([Name], [Year], on § [Paragraph], Note [Number of note])
(Birk 2003 in: Herrmann, C., Heuer, G., Raupach, A., on § 11 EStG, note 28)
(Kister 2021 in: Herrmann, C., Heuer, G., Raupach, A., EStG/KStG, § 11b Sonderbehand-
lung von Erhaltungsaufwand bei Baudenkmalen)
If the author of the comment to be cited is not known:
(Herrmann, Heuer, Raupach 1950/1996, on § 11 EStG, note 28)
In the references (full form)
Herrmann, C.; Heuer, G.; Raupach, A. (eds.). (1950/1996). [EStG- und KStG-Kommentar],
Einkommensteuer- und Körperschaftsteuergesetz, Kommentar, 21. ed., last update: January
2003, Cologne: Dr. Otto Schmidt.
21
Banana Ordinance
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Battis, U.; Mitschang, S., Reidt, O.; Krautzberger, M.; Löhr, R.-P. (2016). Baugesetzbuch,
Kommentar, 13. ed., last update: January 2016, Munich: C. H. Beck.
Notice:
Commentaries are very often loose-leaf collections that are continually updated. It is there-
fore very important that you indicate in your bibliography exactly the status of the commen-
tary to which you refer.
Maps
Maps are subject to copyright protection law and must therefore be cited. While survey data
– roads and the like – are free facts, the layout of the map or the particular composition of the
data may be protected by copyright.
There is no indication in the legal practice as to whether modifications, such as cropping and
marking, are permitted or whether maps, like images, may only be cited unchanged.
Especially for online maps, where often only a part of the map is visible on the screen, it is
advisable to use maps that explicitly allow modifications. This is the case with Open-
StreetMaps, Google Maps and Google Earth. Please follow the providers’ license terms, both
with regard to the required source and license information, as well as with regard to the
changes that are permitted.
Another possibility is simply drawing the map yourself. This is the best way to highlight the
information that is relevant to your work. Name the data source on which your map is based.
OpenStreetMaps
OpenStreetMaps is a free project, whose maps is licensed through the OpenData Commons
Open Database License (ODbL). The map representations are often under a CC-BY-SA li-
cense. However, since the maps are created by different people, the license may vary.
Therefore, always check which uses the respective license allows. As a rule, use and adap-
tation are permitted if the source is specified and the new work is licensed under the same
conditions. Link the license to the license text or, in the case of printed works, provide the link
to the license text. Information about the license is always found below the map on the right.
OpenStreetMaps also offers the possibility of creating a permalink for a displayed map ex-
cerpt (for permalinks see Chapter 3.18, Web pages). You should always specify this per-
malink in the source to facilitate retrieval.
In the references:
Open Street Maps, Germany. (2016). [Map Excerpt Arcisstraße 21], Munich. [Map] created
from Open Street Map data. Open Database License ODbL (http://opendatacommons.org/li-
censes/odbl/). Retrieved from http://www.open-
streetmap.de/karte.html?zoom=17&lat=48.14842&lon=11.56825&layers=B000TT, on
18.05.2016
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If you use a lot of maps in your work, create a list of all the maps in your work - analogous to
the list of figures or tables.
In general, the schema for electronic maps looks like this:
Electronic map
[Cartographer, institution, or name of the person who created the map]. [(Year of publica-
tion)]. [Title of Map] [[Map]]. [Publisher]. [URL, if possible, use a permanent link]
Cable, D. (2013). The racial dot map [Map]. University of Virginia, Weldon Cooper Center for
Public Service. https://demographics.coopercenter.org/Racial-Dot-Map
For dynamically-generated maps, specify the retrieval date. If the map has no title, give a
short description of the title in square brackets.
Google. (n.d.). [Google Maps directions for driving from La Paz, Bolivia, to Lima, Peru]. Re-
trieved February 16, 2020, from https://goo.gl/YYE3GR
Except for the above-mentioned examples of electronic maps, the APA style does not pro-
vide any other examples of maps.
Printed maps should be described as accurately as possible. If possible, mention the follow-
ing information in the reference:
Author, title, edition, scale, place of publication, publisher, year, material description (map,
relief, architectural drawing), other physical characteristics (on parchment, digital, etc.), size,
information on a series the map belongs to.
Map 1: Arcisstraße 21, Munich (Open Street Maps, 2016), published under Open Database License ODbL
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In addition, you can differentiate between the individually published maps, and maps from at-
lases (Northey & Knight, 2007, pp. 234-235):
Individually published map
Zania. Population over 50 [demographic map]. Zunila: Census Division, Office of Interna-
tional Affairs; 1995 Scale 1: 1,500,000. 2 sheets.
Map from an atlas
Chatham Islands. Fluvial features [topographic map]. In: Atlas of islands. San Francisco:
Floating Press; 2001 p. 44-5. Color, scale 1: 250,000.
Newspaper articles
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year of publication, Month in words
Day)]. [Title of article]. [Name of newspaper]. [URL]
Guarino, B. (2017, December 4). How will humanity react to alien life? Psychologists have
some predictions. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-
science/wp/2017/12/04/how-will-humanity-react-to-alien-life-psychologists-have-some-pre-
dictions
Occasionally you will find newspaper articles with references like this:
E.g.: ZEIT ONLINE, AFP, dpa, hgö (Gökkaya, 2019)
dpa and AFP stand for the news agencies Deutsche Presseagentur and Agence France-
Presse
22
. Hgö is linked to the authors’ profile of Hasan Gökkaya. In our reference list we only
mention the author:
Gökkaya, H. (2019, October 10). EU-Kommission verklagt Polen wegen Vorgehen gegen
Richter. ZEIT ONLINE. https://www.zeit.de/politik/ausland/2019-10/europaeischer-gerichts-
hof-klage-polen-richter-eu-kommission
Sometimes it happens that the author’s initials do not have a link to a corresponding author’s
profile. In these cases, it is worth enquiring at the newspaper's archive. If there is no linked
author’s profile, omit the author in the reference list entry and place the title in the first posi-
tion. If the author’s initials in the above-mentioned article did not link to an author’s profile,
then the reference in the bibliography would look like this:
EU-Kommission verklagt Polen wegen Vorgehen gegen Richter. (2019, October 10). ZEIT
ONLINE. https://www.zeit.de/politik/ausland/2019-10/europaeischer-gerichtshof-klage-polen-
richter-eu-kommission
22
To find out which abbreviations stand for authors and which for news agencies, you can consult the abbrevia-
tions for news agencies in this list: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_agency
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Patents
For in-text citations, give the patent number and the issuing date.
U.S. Patent No. 123,445 (1988) or (U.S. Patent No. 123.445 1988)
In the reference list, you include the inventor’s name and the official office where the patent
can be seen.
[Inventor‘s last name], [Inventor’s first name abbreviated]. [(Issue date)] [Title of the patent].
[Patent number]. [Patent office]. [URL]
Hiremath, S. C., Kumar, S., Lu, F., & Salehi, A. (2016). Using metaphors to present concepts
across different intellectual domains (U.S. Patent No. 9,367,592). U.S. Patent and Trade-
mark Office. http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=9367592
Usually, there is one patent office in every country. This means that the abbreviation U.S.
stands for the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office in Washington DC. The abbreviation DE
stands for the German Patent and Trademark Office (Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt) in
Munich.
Other citations styles might also mention:
• The name of the assignee or applicant. (Patents are often registered by companies.)
• The registration date (sometimes it might be the approval date or the publication date, so
best name which date you use.)
• The URL to the patent’s full text.
Patents often have a version number like A1, A2, … or B1, B2, … This has to be given in the
reference, too.
Example: DE 27 03 353 A1
DE 10 2005 051 128 B4
Personal communication and expert opinion
For unpublished information, which has been given to you by an expert in a personal conver-
sation or via email, APA style lists the following information:
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated] [(personal communication, [Month in
words] [Day], [Year])]
Example:
T.K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)
Since the reader cannot view personal information, according to the APA style, they are
listed in the text only, not in the reference list.
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In other citation styles, you can often find the following information:
• Full name
• Qualification / position and workplace / institution
• Place of work / institution (without postal address or email address)
• Date and time incl. time zone
• Title of presentation / subject
• Type of communication / source with addressee
Example:
Braun, Gary P. (Prof. for Accounting, College of Business Administration, University of Texas
at El Paso) (02.08.2000, 10:18 RDT): „Re: Questions about Accounting Terminology“. Email
to Bruce W. Irwin
Womser-Hacker, Christa (Prof. für Angewandte Informationswissenschaft, Institut für Ange-
wandte Sprachwissenschaft, Universität Hildesheim) (01.08.2000, 9:18-9:25 MEZ): Personal
communication with Bruce W. Irwin
Such a reference would then be placed in the footnote.
Research data
Research data forms an important basis for academic knowledge. To derive the greatest
possible benefit from the data collected, research data (primary data and secondary data) is
increasingly published in its own right. This allows researchers with different research fo-
cuses to use and cite the data. If data cannot be published or is subject to an embargo pe-
riod, the reasons for this should be made clear.
So where can you find research data? How do you cite it? And how do you publish it?
Finding research data
Often research data is published in repositories. The TUM repository is called mediaTUM.
Subject-specific repositories are listed by re3data.
Citing research data
A research data reference should include the following:
• Author
• Publication date
• Title
• Version (if applicable)
• Publication agent (Institution)
• Type of resource
• Identifier (if applicable)
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Research data can be especially well cited if there is already a persistent identifier like a DOI
registered.
Example:
Fahrenberg, J. (2010). Freiburger Beschwerdenliste FBL. Primärdaten der Normierungsstich-
probe 1993 (Version 1.0.0) [Dataset]. ZPID- Leibniz-Zentrum für Psychologische Information
und Dokumentation. http://doi.org/10.5160/psychdata.fgjn05an08
[Author last name], [Author first name abbreviated] [(Publication year)]. [Title] [(Version num-
ber)] [[Type of source]]. [Publisher/Institution]. [DOI as URL/URL]
Published research data with an institution as the author
National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Fast Response Survey System (FRSS):
Teachers‘ use of educational technology in U.S. public schools, 2009 (ICPSR 35531; Version
V3) [Data set and code book]. National Archive of Data on Arts and Culture.
https://doi.ort./10.3886/ICPSR35531.v3
If the record does not have a version number, omit this information.
Pew Hispanic Research Center. (200418). American trends panel Wave 26 [Data set].
https://pewsocialtrands.org/dataset/american-trends-panel-wave-26
Access-restricted research data
Some research data cannot be published immediately or even not at all. For data protected
under EU data protection law or data included in patent application processes, access may
be restricted or prohibited. In these cases, however, at least the metadata that provides infor-
mation about access conditions should be published – keyword: FAIR principles (GO FAIR,
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2022; Wilkinson et al., 2016). As an example of how to specify access conditions for re-
search data with restricted access see Stelzle et al. (2020):
Stelzle, D., Storz, C., Baxmann, A., Burtscher, C., Matuja, W., Schmutzhard, E., & Winkler,
A. S. (2020). Community-based screening for febrile seizures in Kinondoni District, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania [Dataset]. Technische Universität München. https://media-
tum.ub.tum.de/1553680
If you want to cite research data without published metadata specify [Unpublished raw data]
as the source type. Instead of the year of publication, enter the year(s) of collection. If the da-
taset does not have a title, provide a brief description in square brackets. This may look like
this:
Figure 4: Metadata for research data on mediaTUM (Stelzle et al., 2020)
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Bear, R.A. (2015). [Unpublished raw data on the correlations between the Five Facet Mind-
fulness Questionnaire and the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills]. University of Ken-
tucky.
Remember that you always need permission from the copyright holder if you want to use un-
published sources. For further information on unpublished sources see Chapter 3.19.
Publishing research data
You can publish your research data either on the TUM repository mediaTUM or on a subject-
specific repository.
You can find out how to publish your data on mediaTUM here.
To provide your data with a permanent identifier, you can apply for a DOI. Our team will be
happy to support you with courses and advice on research data management.
Helpful information on how to publish research data under open licenses can be found in the
guide "Rechtsfragen bei Open Science“ (Kreutzer & Lahmann, 2019).
Software and apps
If you use specialized software for your work, it must be cited. Standard software such as Mi-
crosoft Word or Excel, Java, Adobe Photoshop, SAS, SPSS, etc. need not be cited. If you
use standard software to collect, evaluate or present results in a special way, please state
the name and version of the software in the text.
Example: Data was analyzed with IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 25).
For specialized software, refer to it in the reference list according to the following scheme:
Software
[Author last name], [Author first name abbreviated]. [(Year)]. [Name of software] [(Version
number)] [[Computer software/Mobile app]]. [Name of publisher or app store]. [URL]
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L., Higgings, J., & Rothstein, H. (2014). Comprehensive metaanaly-
sis (Version 3.3.070) [Computer software]. Biostat. https//www.meta-analysis.com
If there is no author, specify the publisher as the author instead and omit the indication of the
publisher before the URL.
TechSmith Corporation. (2020). Camtasia Studio (Version 2019.0.108.6.0) [Computer soft-
ware]. Okemos, MI: TechSmith Corporation. https://www.techsmith.de/camtasia.html
These schemes come from the APA style. Other styles also name the publication date or ac-
cess date. In addition to the term "computer software", the terms "software" or "program" are
also very common.
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Apps
Apps follow the scheme for software. Here is an example:
Epocrates. (2019). Epocrates medical references (Version 18.12) [Mobile app]. App Store.
https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/eopcrates/id281935788?mt=8
Standards
Standards are usually protected by copyright and can be cited under the right of citation ac-
cording to § 51 UrhG. However, just as with other protected works, you should take care to
use the cited work to an extent that does not violate the interests of the author. This means
that the citation must not be so extensive that it could replace the cited work or that a user
would no longer buy the original work (Lüft, 2019§ 51, Rn 6-7). You should be particularly
careful with images from standards. It is often difficult to decide whether this is a permitted
act of use under the right of citation or an infringement of the author's right of exploitation.
Therefore, in case of doubt, you should always ask the Beuth-Verlag. You can obtain permis-
sion there as well.
Permission form: here
The Beuth-Verlag's recommends to cite standards like this:
Example: DIN ISO 8037-1:2003-05, Optik und optische Instrumente - Mikroskope; Objekt-
träger - Teil 1: Maße, optische Eigenschaften und Kennzeichnung (ISO 8037-1:1986)
However, you should always adapt the editors' citation suggestions to the guidelines of your
citation style. In the APA style, there are no specifications for citing standards. If we try to fol-
low the general APA scheme a source citation for standards could look like this:
Deutsches Institut für Normung (2003 May). DIN ISO 8037-1: Optik und optische Instrumente
– Mikroskope; Objektträger – Teil 1: Maße, optische Eigenschaften und Kennzeichnung (ISO
8037-1:1986).
In the IEEE Editorial Style Manual you will find the following (IEEE Publishing Operations,
2020, p. 17):
Basic format:
[1] Title of standard, standard number, date.
Examples:
[1] IEEE Criteria for Class IE Electric Systems, IEEE Standard 308, 1969
[2] Letter Symbols for Quantities, ANSI Standard Y10.5-1968.
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Students’ projects
Students‘ works have to be cited. Even if you supervise student assignments, for example,
as part of your Master’s thesis or your dissertation, and have thus contributed to the creation
of the work, it remains the case that copyright belongs to the author.
Should you want to cite from an unpublished student’s work, you have to seek the student’s
(=author’s) permission (TUM Graduate School, Fakultäts-Graduiertenzentrum Maschinen-
wesen, 2012) and document this in your thesis together with the citation. Follow the scheme
for unpublished university publications (s. Chapter. 3.4).
However, it is easier if the student’s work has been published. TUM advises publishing final
papers if significant scientific results were obtained.
There are different ways to publish:
• Online publication on the media server mediaTUM: if you want to publish a student ex-
amination paper on mediaTUM, please send an email to the address sup-
[email protected].de or upload the paper yourself using your chair’s mediaTUM account.
Our mediaTUM team will be happy to answer any further questions regarding mediaTUM
via mediatum@ub.tum.de.
• Making your thesis available at the university library: further information on how to pub-
lish students’ theses via the library.
• Another alternative would be to publish a technical paper together with the student,
based on the student’s work (i.e. within a publication series at your chair), and to cite this
technical paper.
Tables
Copyright law does not protect quantitative data. Therefore, you can always cite them. You
can even use extracts from tables in your own table if you mention the source. If you create a
table using data from different sources, you have to make clear, where the information
comes from. However, make sure that this extract does not misrepresent the data or present
it in a misleading context.
In contrast to the data itself, the display of the data may be protected. If a program like Excel
generates the display, the level of creativity necessary for gaining copyright protection, will
usually not be attained.
Just as with images, tables should be numbered. All tables are listed in a separate list of ta-
bles, with the table number, table title, and page number.
In contrast to images, table titles usually appear above (image titles appear below).
When you use a table from a work, you reference it in the text next to the page number, in-
cluding the original table number. The work appears in the reference list.
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Example:
In the references:
Heppner, S. (2009). Vegetative Vermehrung einheimischer Baumarten in Südecuador : phy-
siologische Grundlagen und deren Umsetzung. (Doctoral dissertation, Universität Bayreuth).
https://epub.uni-bayreuth.de/464/
Data from different sources
If you have collected data from different sources in one table, the source of information in a
cell has to be clearly visible to your reader. To show that data in a row or column comes from
the same source, you can use various methods such as putting it in the table heading (blue),
column/row heading (green), or adding an extra row/column (purple).
Table 1: Energieverbrauch in Deutschland 2011-2020; Sources: Coal (bp, 2022, p. 39), Petroleum (bp, 2022, p.
21), Natural gas (bp, 2022, p. 32), Nuclear energy (BMWi, 2021, Tab. 4), Renewable energies (bp, 2022, p. 43),
Total: own calculation
Coal [1]
Petroleum
[1]
Natural gas
[1]
Nuclear energy
[2]
Renewable
energies [1]
Total
in Petajoule
2011
3.280
4.730
2.910
1.178
1.240
13.338
2012
3.370
4.700
2.920
1.085
1.400
13.475
2013
3.470
4.800
3.060
1.061
1.450
13.841
2014
3.330
4.670
2.660
1.060
1.580
13.300
2015
3.290
4.670
2.770
1.001
1.830
13.561
2016
3.200
4.760
3.060
923
1.820
13.763
2017
3.010
4.870
3.160
833
2.080
13.953
2018
2.900
4.630
3.090
829
2.160
13.609
2019
2.250
4.660
3.210
819
2.310
13.249
2020
1.810
4.220
3.140
702
2.440
12.312
Source
(bp, 2022,
p. 39)
(bp, 2022,
p. 21)
(bp, 2022,
p. 32)
(BMWi , 2021,
Tab. 4)
(bp, 2022,
p. 43)
(own calcu-
lation)
If you cannot specify the origin of the data line-by-line or row-by-row, or you have too many
sources to list them all in the table heading, you might want to give the exact origin of all data
in the appendix, where you can give the origin for each cell individually. In the table heading,
you could refer to your sources in the following way:
Table 1: Übersicht über Stecklingsansätze aus jungen Tabebuia- und Heliocarpus-Pflanzen (Heppner, 2009, p.
20, Table 2.2)
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Table 1: Population in Munich (For this table data from the following sources was used: Mül-
ler 1901, Maier 1952, Schmidt 2001, Schuster 2010 and Bäcker 2016. For exact data origin,
see Appendix X)
Unpublished Sources
Unpublished sources should only be cited if the information is not otherwise available to the
reader. In general, unpublished sources are cited in the same way as published ones.
Unpublished sources may only be cited with the author’s permission. This is not necessary if
the copyright has already expired. If possible, include the source in the appendix to make it
accessible to your reader. Keep in mind that permission to cite a work does not automatically
mean permission to include an unpublished source in the appendix. Make sure to get this ad-
ditional permission. The work is not listed in the reference list unless it is available in an ar-
chive. In this case, give the information on where to find the document in question at the end
of the reference and include it in the reference list.
The entry in the reference lists includes the following information:
[Author last name], [Author first name abbreviated] [(Year)]. [Title of source]. [Unpublished
manuscript/Manuscript submitted for publication/Manuscript in preparation], [Chair/Faculty/],
[Name of institution].
Wolters, P. (2001). Koedukation im Sportunterricht - Zwischen Gleichheit und Differenz. Un-
published manuscript, Fachbereich Erziehungswissenschaften, Universität Hamburg.
O’Shea, M. (2018). Understanding proactive behavior in the workplace as a function of gen-
der [Manuscript in preparation]. Department of Management, University of Kansas.
Lippincott, T., & Poindexter, E.K. (2019). Emotion recognition as a function of facial cues: Im-
plications for practice [Manuscript submitted for publication]. Department of Psychology, Uni-
versity of Washington.
The APA style specifies here that not the journal to which the manuscript was submitted is
indicated, but the institution at which the article was written.
Videos
In general, videos are protected by copyright and may be cited within the limits of the right to
citation (see Chapter 1.2). If you use an excerpt from a video in your academic work, you
should describe what you want to show or paraphrase or transcribe the statement you want
to use. Give the reference in the text in the same way as for written sources. In the same
way, as you give a page reference, for a video you enter the time parameters of the video ex-
cerpt you use, e.g. (Schneider, 2018, min. 6:30-7:25). The reference in the reference list then
looks like this:
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Videos
[Author last name or producing organization], [Author first name(s) abbreviated, not applica-
ble for organizations] [(Director)]. [(Year)]. [Title of Video] [[Description of source]]. [Pro-
ducer]. [URL]
Forman, M. (Director). (1975). One flew over the cuckoo’s nest [Film]. United Artists.
Fosha, D. (Guest Expert), & Levenson, H. (Host). (2017). Accelerated experiential dynamic
psychotherapy (AEDP) supervision [Film; educational DVD]. American Psychological Associ-
ation. https://www.apa.org/pubs/videos/4310958.aspx
University of Oxford. (2018, December 6). How do geckos walk on water? [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qm1xGfOZJc8
Reference management programs usually only offer one document type for movies. Check
whether the reference contains all the necessary information. In some cases, another docu-
ment type may better represent a video from the Internet (e.g. web page).
If you want to use excerpts from videos in class, § 60a UrhG applies.
Web pages
Consider, that not all internet sources are web pages. Please check first whether your source
is indeed a web page or rather a report, a journal article, a blog post, or any other type of
source that has only been made available on a web page.
[Author last name], [Author first name(s) abbreviated]. [(Year, month in words day)]. [Title of
work]. [Site name]. [URL]
If no authors are named on the website, the name of the website or the publishing institution
takes the place of the author. The name of the website is then not repeated before the URL.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, January 23). People at high risk of devel-
oping flu-related complications. http://www.cdc.fov/flu/about/disease/high_risk.htm
If you cannot find a date on the website, enter a retrieval date before the URL instead, follow-
ing this scheme: [Retrieved Month in words day, year, from URL].
U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). US. and world population clock. U.S. Department of Commerce.
Retrieved July 3, 2019, from https://www.census.gov/popclock/
In general, we would recommend that all citations from dynamic web pages (e.g. blogs, fo-
rums, web pages from institutions, etc.) also include the access date.
For online sources, many citation styles indicate what type of source it is. For web pages, in-
dications such as [Webpage], [Website], or [Online] are common. The APA style makes no
such indication for web pages here.
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When giving the URL always give the URL of the specific page you cite, not the general start
page of the web page. Consequently, if you cite several subpages of a website, you include
each subpage as a separate source in the reference list.
Make sure your Internet sources are permanently available wherever possible. If available,
instead of a URL use a persistent identifier, i.e. a permanently available link (DOI, URN, han-
dle, ...). These so-called permalinks (permanent links) work even when the post on the blog
or wiki has been updated or changed. To be on the safe side, save web pages or print a
copy so that you can submit them if in doubt. Some reference management software already
offers a function to save screenshots of web pages (e.g. Citavi, Mendeley, Zotero).
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Further questions regarding citation
How can I find free images? (Creative Commons)
Pre-licensing contracts made by the non-profit organization Creative Commons should help
to define the rights and conditions for your own productions. CC licenses always enable the
extension of the valid copyright to any further possibilities for use, they never pose an addi-
tional limitation.
From the user's perspective, CC licenses help to find content such as images or videos on
the Internet freely available for use. Conversely, the absence of a CC-labeling, however,
does not mean that the use of e.g. an image is not permitted. You should in this case care-
fully check the copyright provisions (see 1.4.3).
CC licenses remain valid as long as the copyright for the respective work is valid. Afterward
works licensed by CC are in the public domain, too.
The following six licenses are currently available
23
:
Attribution (by):
“You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.”
(Creative Commons, 2017f)
Attribution – No derivatives (by-nd):
“You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format for any purpose, even
commercially.” (Creative Commons, 2017a)
Attribution – Non-commercial (by-nc):
“You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material” (Creative Commons, 2017d)
Attribution – Non-Commercial No Derivatives (by-nc-nd):
“You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format” (Creative Commons,
2017b)
23
Please note the licenses are constantly expanded. The representation in the document is as of 25.6.2014.
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Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike (by-nc-sa):
“You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material” (Creative Commons, 2017c)
Attribution – Share Alike (by-sa):
“You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
(Creative Commons, 2017e)
Beyond these you might find two other symbols:
Public Domain Dedication (CC0 1.0 Universal)
“The person who associated a work with this deed has dedicated the work to the public
domain by waiving all of his or her rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, in-
cluding all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law.
You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all
without asking permission. “ (Creative Commons, 2017g)
Public Domain Mark 1.0
This work has been identified as being free of known restrictions under copyright law,
including all related and neighboring rights.
You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all
without asking permission.” (Creative Commons, 2017h)
The license terms require that every time you use an item, the name of the copyright holder
must be cited. You must also specify a link to the license and specify whether you have mod-
ified the item. A CC license does not relieve you of the obligation to cite! The license
does ensure that the media found may be used.
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Bear in mind that not all CC licenses can be combined. Figure 5 shows which CC licenses
can be combined.
You can also specifically search for CC pictures. Certain search engines help find those.
Some examples:
Openverse formerly CC-Search (): A Wordpress-connected search engine designed specif-
ically to find CC-licensed works. Openverse searches platforms that offer CC-licensed con-
tent, such as Flickr, Wiki-media Commons, Stocksnap, or, for music, Freesound and
Jamendo. A list of the platforms searched can be found here: https://wordpress.org/open-
verse/sources
Flickr: Use the Advanced Search to select a CC license for specific images you want to find.
Google Image Search: After entering a search term in the Google image search, you can
filter results by license (menu item: Search Options → rights).
Let's CC: As with CC Search, not a search engine, but an interface that uses a variety of
other search engines to locate CC content.
But be aware: If you use an image that has been illegally posted on the net under a CC li-
cense - e.g. because a person falsely claims to be the author or has not obtained all the
rights of other rights holders - its further use is also illegal. You may be held liable for unau-
thorized use, even if you knew nothing about it. In copyright law, there is no good faith pro-
tection. So, check the source of a CC-licensed material carefully before you use it.
Figure 5: Compatibilty amongst Creative Commons Licences (Creative Commons, 2015 published under CC-BY
4.0 international licence https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode)
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How should I use images in my presentation?
As in your written work, you may also use images in presentations - as long as you comply
with the requirements of the right to citation (see Chapter 1.2). If, for example, you use an im-
age in your presentation, giving the full reference and explaining the purpose of the citation in
your presentation orally, it is permitted by copyright law. The situation is different if you then
share or distribute this presentation. In the presentation, the purpose of citing is not ex-
plained. This explanation must be included in a presentation if it is passed on to others. Hid-
den slides may be used, hiding the explanation during the presentation and displaying it for
later distribution.
There is no set way to mark your sources in a presentation. The following solutions are pos-
sible:
• You name the complete source next to the picture on the respective slide.
• You use a short reference in the caption and mention the complete source in a refer-
ence list at the end of the presentation, as you would do in your academic work.
• At the end of the presentation, you list all sources and name the slide on which you
used the image. If you have used several images on one slide, name an additional
distinguishing feature (e.g., bottom left, top right, etc.).
A clear link between the image and its source is essential in presentations as well.
Who is the author? Who is the co-author?
There are several guidelines and codes of honor governing the proper approach to the sub-
ject co-authorship. The „Guidelines for Safeguarding Good Research Practice. Code of Con-
duct“ have therefore been adopted at TUM. You will find the following regulations in § 12:
“(1) An author is someone who has made a genuine, recognizable contribution to the content
of a scientific text, dataset, or software publication, i.e., who has contributed to
1. defining the problem, drawing up the research plan, collecting the data, evaluating or inter-
preting research outcomes, or
2.
1
the draft or critical review and revision of manuscript content.
2
Co-authorship does not ap-
ply to persons who merely made a technical contribution to the collection of data, merely pro-
vided funding, or merely served as the head of the department or institution in which the re-
search was carried out.
3
The same applies to persons who merely read the manuscript with-
out contributing to its content.
4
Honorary authorships are prohibited.”
The American Physical Society recommends all other parties involved are mentioned in the
Acknowledgements (APS physics: Ethics and Values : 02.2 APS Guidelines for
professional conduct., 2002).
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More and more often, the individual contributions of different contributors are entered via the
Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT). CRediT distinguishes 14 roles, which often occur in
scientific projects: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition,
Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Vali-
dation, Visualization, Writing – original draft and Writing – review & editing (CASRAI, 2018).
Here is an example:
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS: S.C.P. and S.Y.W. conceived and performed experiments,
wrote the manuscript, and secured funding. M.E., A.N.V., and N.A.V. performed experiments.
M.E.V and C.K.B. provided reagents. A.B., N.L.W., and A.A.D. provided expertise and feed-
back. (Peterson et al., 2015)
Important note: Co-authors share responsibility for published papers. If you are listed as a
co-author, you, therefore, have the right to check the final manuscript before submission. Ex-
ception: If you were involved in a specific, definable area, then you are only responsible for
this part.
Depending on the field, the order of authors also has varying significance. So, it may be the
case that the incumbent at the chair is named as the last author, while there are other fields
where the author with the largest share of the publication is named first, etc. Sometimes the
authors are simply arranged in alphabetical order.
Note:
The order of authors influences e.g. bibliometric analyses. Because often authors listed at
the end are not included in the analyses. If you are unsure in which order to name the con-
tributing authors, enquire about the usual practice in your field
Sometimes the order is established by drawing lots. Enquire about the usual approach in
your field of research. However, when citing sources, you always keep the original order of
the authors’ names.
How do I cite myself? - Citation or second publication?
It is always assumed that scientific findings which appear without a citation
1. come from the author,
2. are new,
3. are published for the first time and
4. are correct and complete (see U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2013)
It follows from points 2 and 3 that all content that you use and have published before must be
cited. This is also emphasized by the DFG in its commentary on Guideline 13 of the Code
"Guidelines for Safeguarding Good Scientific Practice" (DFG, 2022). Citing is therefore not
only about protecting the intellectual property of others, but also about distinguishing be-
tween what is already known and new knowledge. Content should only be repeated if it is
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necessary to understand the context. Self-citations as a means of inflating your h-index is
considered unethical (TUM, 2021, p. 5, §11, para 5, no 1 sentence 3 ).
If you want to cite from your own works, the same rules apply as for citing from other authors’
works (see Chapter 1.2).
Anything that goes beyond the boundaries of a citation must be regarded as a second publi-
cation. The right of second publication is regulated by § 38 UrhG.
Regardless of whether you are using an entire work or individual sections, the rules of good
scientific practice require that it be made clear which part was taken and from where. A gen-
eral mention in the preface may supplement but does not replace, the reference in the text.
However, today it is common practice that research results that are produced during doctoral
studies are published in journals before the final dissertation is submitted. Since these results
are an important part of the doctoral research, they are usually published again in the disser-
tation. The results are then not cited but published for the second time. Different rules apply
for second publications than for citations. The right of second publication is regulated in § 38
of the Copyright Act (§ 38 UrhG).
Whether you are publishing an entire work or individual sections a second time, the rules of
good scientific practice require that you indicate clearly which parts were published before
and where. A general mention in the preface does not replace the in-text reference.
How can you use your own previously published work(s)?
1.) Citation
• Direct citation (=quote): For direct citations (i.e. the unchanged adoption), the same
rules apply whether you cite yourself or someone else (see Chapter 1.2). This means
that you must explicitly justify the use of the citation. To present results a second time
is no longer a citation, but a second publication
• Indirect citation (=paraphrase): If you paraphrase, the copyright is not affected. As
copyright law does not protect the idea, but the form of the idea. Properly para-
phrased, you can cite as much as you like. However, to comply with the rules of good
scientific practice, you must always give appropriate references.
2.) Second publication
Adopting whole sections (no quotation): If you want to adopt whole sections, chapters, or
the entire work without any changes, you must first clarify whether you have the right to use
it. Firstly, it depends on which rights you have given to the publisher (this is stated in your au-
thor's contract), and secondly, whether you are the sole author. Even though you always re-
main the author of your work, you assign rights of use to the publisher. If you transfer too
many rights to the publisher, you must ask the publisher for permission if you want to use
your work elsewhere. If you are not the sole author, you also need the permission of your co-
authors to republish parts or the whole article.
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Also important for second publications:
• Which version may you use? (in case of a second publication of a complete ar-
ticle) This may vary from publisher to publisher. Sometimes you may republish the
submitted version, sometimes the final author manuscript before the publisher’s lay-
out, and sometimes the final version in the publisher's layout. You need to clarify
which version you are permitted to use.
• Intended use for permissions: The purpose of use is also important for approvals.
In some cases, a second publication in the dissertation will be permitted, but not in a
work independent of the examination process. Always specify exactly which use is to
be permitted when seeking approval.
• Reference to first publication: To do justice to the principle of transparency, you
must also ensure that the distinction "new vs. already known" is clear as regards your
previously published works. General introductory sentences such as "parts of this
chapter / this work have already been published in xy" are not sufficient. The easiest
way to make this distinction is to group previously published results together and then
cite the original publication. The reference should be given the same way you cite any
other source in your work. Present not yet published results separately. This way, the
new vs. already-known distinction is preserved, and previously published results are
visible as such.
Further explanations and recommendations on second publications for scientists can be
found in Spielkamp (2015).
Self-plagiarism vs. text recycling
The term "self-plagiarism" is deliberately not used in this guide, as the term is a contradiction
of itself. While plagiarism involves passing off someone else's work as one's own, it is hardly
possible to pass off one's own earlier work as one's own unauthorized. In the case of plagia-
rism, readers are deceived as to the authorship of a text. Where self-plagiarism is mentioned,
it is usually more a case of deception regarding the novelty of a text and the lack of rights of
use. The German Research Ombudsman takes up the recommendation of the Text Recy-
cling Research Project (TRRP) to replace the term self-plagiarism with the term text recycling
(Hagenström, 2022).
The TRRP distinguishes four categories of text recycling (Hall et al., 2021b):
1. developmental recycling: publication based on previously unpublished texts (e.g. confer-
ence presentations or posters).
2. generative recycling: adoption of identical or almost identical passages in a paper with
new original research results (e.g. background information or method descriptions).
3. adaptive publication: use of central parts or entire papers, often in a different text genre, in
order to reach a different audience (e.g. articles in a dissertation or a book).
4. duplicate publication: use without (significant) changes, usually with infringement of copy-
right or publishing rights.
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While the first category is considered uncritical, the transition is fluid for categories two and
three, from uncritical to ethically questionable. Use under category four is considered unethi-
cal. (Hall et al., 2021b, pp. 2-6; Moskovitz, 2018). The TRRP also provides important guid-
ance on the re-use of results and publications in its guidance for researchers (Hall et al.,
2021b) and best practice recommendations (Hall et al., 2021a).
Is there an international copyright?
The principle of “Lex loci protectionis”
24
applies to copyright law: the law of the country in
which copyright protection is claimed, i.e., in which the work was published.
(JuraForum News, 05.09.2011)
Example: You publish a paper in the American journal “Cell”. This is where you claim Ameri-
can copyright protection, your paper is subject to the “Copyright Law of the United States of
America”. If a copyright infringement of your work occurs in a text published in the UK, in liti-
gation only UK copyright applies.
Tip: If you write yourself
If you write a paper yourself, always consider the internationally valid ethical rules of good
academic practice. As far as the law of citation is concerned, the German legal system is ra-
ther strict, so if you stick to these regulations, you are on the safe side. If you publish in an-
other country, however, you will have to comply with the copyright law that applies there.
You are therefore bound by the copyright law of the country in which you publish.
There are efforts to harmonize the copyright laws of individual countries, and international
copyright agreements have been concluded. The first treaty under international law in this
field is the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, now the Re-
vised Berne Convention (RBC) of 1886. Currently, 171 states have signed this agreement.
Since there are 194 countries in the world, the treaty is of great importance. (Kreutzer)
There are also efforts at harmonization in the EU. Full harmonization has so far failed mainly
because of the different legal traditions within the EU: the continental European “droit d'au-
teur” system (F, D) and the Anglo-American copyright system (GB, IRL) (see Table 1). In the
continental European copyright system, the rights of the author, which is exclusively the cre-
ator of the work, are protected. In the Anglo-American copyright system, users are protected,
which means rights holders do not have to be the creator of the work. (Ohly, 2016, p. 10)
Fair use principle in comparison with German citation law
The fair use principle in US law is difficult to grasp, so in the US, copyright issues can often
only be settled by courts. The courts are guided by four factors:
24
Latin: “[the] law of the place where the protection is [claimed]”
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1. the purpose and character of your use
2. the nature of the copyrighted work
3. the amount and substantiality of the portion taken, and
4. the effect of the use of the potential market.
(Stim, 2005-2016b)
The copyright notice
The C in a circle, the American copyright notice, is now also found in publications in other
countries than the USA (for example, in Germany). After the ©, the name of the copyright
owner and the publication year are mentioned. This sign has no meaning in German copy-
right, and is not bound to any form; German copyright applies from the date of the creation of
a work. (Recht A - Z : Fachlexikon für Studium, Ausbildung und Beruf 2015, p. 103) In the
case of publications in the USA, the copyright notice is, however, no longer mandatory, but it
is still recommended that you include it, for example, to improve your chances of winning in
subsequent litigations. (Stim, 2005-2016a)
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Comparison: Urheberrecht vs. Copyright
Table 2: Comparison Urheberrecht vs. Copyright (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2007)
Urheberrecht (UrhG)
Tradition
Copyright
Protects the intellectual and
economic interests of the au-
thor; the protected work can’t be
separated from its creator
Idea
Protects the economic inter-
ests of the publisher; is meant
to support the public good
through economic incentive
Copyright cannot be waived; Af-
ter the author’s death their
rights pass over to their heirs;
the author can grant usability
rights
Transferability
Copyright can be waived (work
becomes part of the public do-
main); the author can transfer
all rights, so can the new rights
holder
Citations: parts of a work may
be cited if the author is indi-
cated and further regulations
are met
Private Copies: copies for pri-
vate use are permitted within a
specified range
Education & Research: a work
may be made accessible to a
definable group of persons for
purpose of education and re-
search
Limitations
Fair Use (USA): appropriate
use of protected works (for ed-
ucation, as inspiration for new
works) is allowed without the
author's consent
First sale doctrine (USA):
once a work is in the move-
ments of goods, it can be re-
sold without further approval
Fair dealings (Common-
wealth): permits a small num-
ber of copies for the purpose of
private studies, review, criti-
cism, or reporting
Germany & France: 70 years
after the author’s death
Term of protection
USA: 70/95 years after the au-
thor’s death
UK: 70 years after the author’s
death
Amongst others Germany,
France, Switzerland, Austria,
the Netherlands, partly EU law
Prevalence
Amongst others USA, UK,
Commonwealth
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Can I cite retracted articles?
Sometimes publications are withdrawn due to qualitative or legal shortcomings. Then a so-
called retraction note or retraction notice is published. It announces that an article has been
withdrawn and what the reasons behind this are. In principle, retracted articles should not be
cited. In exceptional cases, however, there may also be good reasons to cite a retracted arti-
cle.
How do I find out if an article I want to cite has been retracted?
1. Search the database where you originally found the article. Search for
the title of the article. Most databases mark the reference entry of the
original article as "Retracted" - but not all do. Also, the authors of the
original article are not always mentioned in the record of the retraction
note. If you only search for the author of the article, the retraction note
may not be displayed. If you search with the title of the article, you will
usually find both the original article and the retraction note.
2. If the PDF file of the article contains a CrossMark button (see Figs. 4,
5), follow the link and you will immediately know whether it has been
corrected or retracted.
3. Search the Retraction Watch Database at for the article.
There are several reasons why articles are retracted. Retraction Watch
(2019) lists over 90 reasons, among them: Copyright claims, duplication of
article or image, error in analysis, fake peer review, falsification / fabrication
of data, lack of approval from author, manipulation of images or data, results
not reproducible or salami slicing.
What do I do if an article I want to cite has been retracted?
1. Check if the information you want to cite has already been published elsewhere. If so,
cite this source. If this is not the case ...
2. ... check why the article was retracted. Does this affect the reliability of the statement
you want to cite?
a. If so, do not cite and do not use the information.
b. If the results of the article appear scientifically sound, check whether the full
text can still be found. Some publishers link its retraction note instead of the
retracted article. If the full text is no longer available (not even printed), do not
cite the article.
If the reasons for the retraction do not compromise the quality of the content you want to cite,
cite the article and disclose in a note that 1. the article was retracted, 2. why it was retracted,
and 3. why you are citing it anyway.
Before you submit your work, you should check all sources again to see if any of them have
been retracted.
Figure 7:CrossMar
button (Medings,
2016)
Figure 7: Cross-
Mark button (old)
(Use courtesy of
CrossMark)
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How do I cite charts from Statista?
The reference information in Statista usually looks like this (s. Fig. 8):
There is a copyright notice below the figure, as well as a reference to the source of the data
on the right side of the figure. Statista prepares third-party data graphically but does not usu-
ally collect the data itself.
Here we have a particularly complicated case because the source of the data is the BMVI,
the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure. However, the data was published
in numbers in a Focus article. It remains to be assumed that the BMVI never published the
data itself. The Focus received the data from the BMVI at its request and published it. Based
on the data published there, Statista then created the chart shown above.
Which source you have to cite depends on whether you want to use the chart or the original
data. If you want to use the original data, for example, to create your own chart or to include
it in a table to compare it with other data, then check the original source, in this case, the Fo-
cus article, and cite the original source. If, on the other hand, you want to use the chart, you
must disclose who the author of the chart is, but also where the data visualized in the chart
came from.
Figure 8: Source reference for a graph from statista
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The in-text citation in an author-year style could then look like this: (Illustration: Statista 2020,
Data: Focus Online 2018).
In the references, list both sources separately:
Statista (2020). Anteil von Elektroautos im Fuhrpark von Bundesministerien in Deutschland.
Stand: Februar 2018. https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/811962/umfrage/anteile-
von-e-autos-im-fuhrpark-deutscher-bundesministerien/#statisticContainer
Focus Online (2018, February 3). Energiewende in der Regierung: Fast jedes zweite Fahr-
zeug tankt Strom. https://www.focus.de/magazin/archiv/politik-energiewende-in-der-regier-
ung-fast-jedes-zweite-fahrzeug-tankt-strom_id_8404544.html
25
What do I have to consider when using personal data??
You do not always cite other people's works. Especially when you collect data yourself or use
your own images, you are often dealing with personal data. This can be, for example, in the
form of interviews, patient data, X-rays, or people in images. In all these cases, it is important
to take the General Data Protection Regulation (DS-GVO) into account. According to Art. 4
no. 1 of the DS-GVO, personal data are any information relating to an identified or identifia-
ble natural person; an identifiable natural person is one who can be identified, directly or indi-
rectly, in particular by reference to an identifier such as a name, an identification number, lo-
cation data, an online identifier or to one or more factors specific to the physical, physiologi-
cal, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or social identity of that natural person.
Without explicit permission from the people concerned, you may not publish such data.
Note that it makes a difference whether you only have permission to collect and store data
for a study or the treatment of patients, or whether you are also allowed to publish it. Explicit
consent must always be given for publication.
Every declaration of consent must inform the persons concerned in an easily understandable
way about the purpose for which the data are collected, where and for how long they will be
stored, by whom they will be used, and whom they can contact if they have questions or ob-
jections. In addition, the persons concerned must give their consent voluntarily and be in-
formed that they can revoke it at any time without negative consequences.
If you have permission to publish personal data, always use it in such a way that no connec-
tion can be made to the person, i.e. the data must be anonymized, pseudonymized or en-
crypted.
The eTIC tool of the TUM Ethics Committee helps you to create correct patient information
and consent forms.
25
Depending on whether you verify the data in the print or online version, cite the verified version as the source in
your reference list. Here we have used the online version to verify the data.
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Further information on patient consent can be found on the website of the Medical Informat-
ics Initiative
Can I use an AI like ChatGPT to cite?
Legally, many questions about the use of generative AI such as ChatGPT have not yet been
clarified. In principle, however, it can be said that what is permitted depends on what you
want to use it for and in which situation. Do you want to cite the program as a source of infor-
mation, use it as an aid to phrase your texts, or is the AI itself your subject of investigation?
As source of information
You cannot use ChatGPT or other AI programs as sources of information. The information
may often be correct, but since the sentences are generated by probability, there is no guar-
antee that the information is correct. And even if it is, there is no way to trace where the infor-
mation came from - making it unsuitable as a source of information for scientific purposes.
Don't be fooled by AI-generated source citations. These are also generated by probability
and often do not exist at all.(Salden, 2023, p. 9)
To phrase texts
When it comes to phrasing texts, these programs can be very helpful. However, the question
is whether they are allowed as aids for your current work and whether you adopt the AI-gen-
erated texts word-for-word or only use them as a basis for your own writing. For examina-
tions and credits, you must adhere to the permitted aids and mark them accordingly. So first
find out whether the program is allowed as an aid for your current work and if so, what kind of
use is allowed.
Even though AI-generated texts do not enjoy copyright protection, you must always identify
the source for sections of text that are taken over unchanged to ensure good scientific prac-
tice. Otherwise, you would pass them off as your own work. In terms of examination law, this
would be considered an attempt to cheat. If, on the other hand, you only use the AI-gener-
ated text as an idea and rework it so thoroughly that it becomes your own work, this is ac-
ceptable for scientific use, provided that this type of tool is permitted for your work. If use is
permitted in your case, you would list the program in your paper, just like any other aid.
(Salden, 2023, pp. 23, 25-26) Make sure that you comply not only with the legal require-
ments but also with the terms of use of the software used. See Chapter 3.15 on how to cite it
as a source.
As a rule, you should only use this type of program where you can assess the quality of the
results.
As the subject of investigation
If, on the other hand, the program is your subject of investigation, its use is uncritical. How-
ever, AI-generated texts must of course be clearly identified as such here as well.
A good overview on the use of AI in the university context can be found in Fleischmann
(2023)
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Reference management software? – Yes! – But which
one?
With reference management software, you can automatically cite correctly in the style of your
choice. Reference management software helps to:
• Collect and organize references and files, cite correctly, and create a reference list in a
predefined citation style
• Collect, organize and visualize thoughts and quotations
• Search for literature in library catalogs and databases
• Plan your tasks
• Work collaboratively with and connect to other scientists
Reference management programs are therefore definitely worthwhile for academic writing.
There is a wide variety of programs on the market.
Reference management software: Which one is the right one for you?
Here you can find a detailed comparison of reference management software, including a list
of questions that will help in choosing the right program.
The TUM University Library provides all TUM members free access to the software Citavi
and EndNote as part of a campus license.
TUM Campus license for Citavi
Citavi (Citavi website)
The site license allows you to use the program free of charge in the full version. Although
Citavi is a system designed to run on Windows, version 5 will have a web version which will
therefore be operating system independent. It is a widely used system at German universi-
ties with an intuitive graphical user interface in German, English, and five other languages. In
addition to pure reference management, which also allows group use, further useful program
features include knowledge organization and task planning.
3 Steps to Citavi:
Download & Installation: First download the free version of Citavi and install it on your com-
puter.
Citavi Account: To be able to use the full version and work with cloud projects, please regis-
ter for a Citavi Account with your TUM e-mail address. Authentication with a freemailer ad-
dress (e.g. web.de, GMX, Gmail) is not possible.
Licenses Key: Open Citavi and click on the login icon in the start window. Enter your access
data for your Citavi account. The license information is now automatically recognized.
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TUM Campus license for EndNote
EndNote (Link to EndNote Website) and
EndNote Web (Link to EndNote Web)
EndNote is available for the operating systems Mac OS X and Windows. It offers many op-
tions for data import, processing, and enrichment of references.
Endnote Web/Online can either be used as an online extension to EndNote or as a stand-
alone tool. In this case, the functionality of Endnote online compared to the desktop version
is somewhat limited.
Independently of the desktop version, we offer EndNote Web/Online via the license included
in the subscription to the Web of Science database. You simply need to create an account.
Since Endnote Web/Online is integrated as a feature in Web of Science, data import is very
easy and convenient.
Download and more information on the TUM’s campus license here.
Free Programs
Bibsonomy (Link to Bibsonomy)
Bibsonomy is a social bookmarking system. Users can store shared bookmarks and refer-
ences on this online platform, and manage and develop content. By assigning keywords
(tags), the collected data is structured and is easy to locate on tag clouds. Within the system,
different people can join together to create special interest groups.
Docear (Link to Docear)
Docear is an open-source reference management software with a special focus on the area
of knowledge organization, e.g. the organization of knowledge in mind maps is possible. The
free reference management software JabRef is integrated into the program, allowing optimal
work with LaTeX. There is also a corresponding add-on for Word (Microsoft not Mac).
JabRef (Link to JabRef)
JabRef is a free reference management software that can be used in conjunction with the
document preparation program LaTeX. The program allows you to manage BibTeX files and
edit with a comfortable user interface. The software is available for Mac OS X, Linux, and
Windows.
Mendeley (Link to Mendeley)
The desktop version of the reference management software Mendeley is available for all ma-
jor operating systems (Mac OS X, Linux, and Windows). In addition, there is a web-based
service that, in addition to pure reference management, also includes a social network func-
tion. This facilitates group exchanges on academic topics and collaborations.
Zotero (Link to Zotero)
Zotero was originally developed as an add-on for Mozilla Firefox. An additional stand-alone
version is now available (for Mac OS X, Linux, and Windows). For use with Google Chrome
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and Safari, there are so-called connectors. A special feature of the system is that you can
store personal data collections in addition to the Zotero web pages (with automatic synchro-
nization) and it is also possible to set up groups. This enables you to collect and edit refer-
ences as part of a special interest group.
Reference management and LaTeX
The document preparation software LaTeX has a separate feature for reference manage-
ment in BibTeX format. The reference management programs Docear, JabRef, and Mende-
ley provide very useful support in this format (including automatic import options for refer-
ence data). JabRef is an open-source program that is specifically designed to work with La-
TeX. All three programs will store BibTeX files synchronically in the reference management
database (i.e. with the data in Mendeley, JabRef, or Docear), even where there are subse-
quent changes. Docear, which is integrated into JabRef, also offers full support with refer-
ence management in BibTeX format.
All other reference management software also offers the option of generating and exporting
BibTeX files. In case of subsequent changes to the data in the respective reference manage-
ment software, the BibTeX file must be re-exported, however.
Unlike word processing programs such as Microsoft Word, a list of references is not gener-
ated by the LaTeX reference management program, but by BibLateX. Moreover, the citation
style is not defined by the reference management software but is defined in the LaTeX docu-
ment via the bibstyle.
Conclusion: Even when working with LaTeX, it is worth using reference management soft-
ware.
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Support and Information at TUM University Library
If you have questions about reference management software, please contact us at:
literaturverwaltung@ub.tum.de
Citavi and EndNote courses
The university library offers courses on Citavi and EndNote(Classroom courses, webinars
and e-courses). In our training sessions, you will learn how to use these programs effectively
and will have ample opportunity to try the programs yourself.
For further information and registration see here.
Citation courses for students and researchers
1. Cite it Right: Our basic course for those who want to get an overview. Suitable as in-
troduction or refresher. The content of this course is also a prerequisite for the other
citation courses.
Dates & Registration | Go to Moodle course
2. Citation Lab: Here you will apply the contents of the "Cite it Right" course. The Cita-
tion Lab is especially suitable for students who have little experience with writing and
citing.
Dates & registration
3. Citing for scientists: This course is intended for those who already have a lot of expe-
rience with citation, but still encounter tricky questions.
Dates & Registration
Reference management and citation consultation
We offer a reference management and citation consultations service where individual ques-
tions can be discussed.
To make an appointment see here or write an e-mail to literaturverwaltung@ub.tum.de.
Do you have questions regarding the service of the TUM University Library?
You can reach our information team in several ways:
Mail: information@ub.tum.de
Telephone: +49 (0) 89 189 659 220
Chat: you can find our chat on our website.
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Recommendation on citation styles at TUM
If you have no specific requirements regarding citation styles, we recommend you choose
one of the following three styles. These comprise an author-year style, a numbering style,
and a footnote style. All three styles are widely used and are available in most of the refer-
ence management programs currently available (including Citavi and EndNote).
The APA style (Author-Year style)
There are several copies of The Manual for the Citation Style of the American Psychological
Association available for loan at the TUM University Library.
There is also an electronic version of the APA style simplified by Bernard C. Beins available.
We also have numerous copies of a short introduction to the APA Citation at the library.
Useful, up-to-date information and FAQs on citation can be found on the dedicated website.
Figure 9: Citavi preview für APA 7th ed style
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The IEEE Editorial Style (Numeric style)
The full manual is available online here.
The Chicago Style (Footnote style)
Current issues of The Chicago Manual of Style are available for loan at the TUM University
Library.
Figure 10: Citavi preview for IEEE Editorial style
Figure 10: Citavi preview for Chicago 16th ed. (notes) style
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References
This reference list was created with the reference management program EndNote and is for-
matted with the APA 6
th
citation style.
In some cases, the reference type in EndNote does not correspond to the APA reference
types list. For this reason, the references in this list might differ in particular cases from the
examples given in this citation guide.
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American psychological
association (7 ed.).
APS physics: Ethics and Values : 02.2 APS Guidelines for professional conduct. (2002). American
Physical Society. Retrieved 05.05.2014 from
http://www.aps.org/policy/statements/02_2.cfm
Bailey, S. (2011). Academic writing : a handbook for international students (3. ed.). Routledge.
Balzert, H., Schröder, M., & Schäfer, C. (2013). Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten : Ethik, Inhalt & Form
wiss. Arbeiten ; Handwerkszeug, Quellen, Projektmanagement, Präsentation (2. Aufl. mit 50%
mehr Inhalt, 1. korr. Nachdr. ed.). W3L-Verl.
bp. (2022). bp Statistical Review of World Energy 2022. Retrieved 07.09.2022 from
https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-
economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2022-full-report.pdf
Brink, A. (2013). Anfertigung wissenschaftlicher Arbeiten : ein prozessorientierter Leitfaden zur
Erstellung von Bachelor-, Master- und Diplomarbeiten (5., überarb. und aktualisierte Aufl.
ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-02511-3
Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz. Handbuch der Rechtsförmlichkeit.
Retrieved 22.12.2016 from http://www.hdr.bmj.de/vorwort.html
Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. (2007). Urheberrecht und Copyright - Vergleich zweier
ungleicher Brüder. Retrieved 19.05.2017 from http://www.bpb.de/cache/images/6/63356-
3x2-orginal.gif?D8377
Creative Commons. (2015, October 9.). Adapter's license chart. Creativecommons.org/wiki. Retrieved
16.09.2016 from
https://wiki.creativecommons.org/index.php/Frequently_Asked_Questions#When_is_my_us
e_considered_an_adaptation.3F on 16.09.2016
Creative Commons. (2017a). Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-ND 4.0) Retrieved
07.07.2017 from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/
Creative Commons. (2017b). Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-
ND 4.0) Retrieved 07.07.2017 from http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Creative Commons. (2017c). Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA
4.0) Retrieved 07.07.2017 from http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
Creative Commons. (2017d). Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) Retrieved
07.07.2017 from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
Creative Commons. (2017e). Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) Retrieved
07.07.2017 from http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
Creative Commons. (2017f). Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) Retrieved 07.07.2017 from
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Creative Commons. (2017g). CC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication. Retrieved
07.07.2017 from https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/
Creative Commons. (2017h). Public Domain Mark 1.0. Retrieved 07.07.2017 from
https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. (2019). Leitlinien zur Sicherung guter wissenschaftlicher Praxis -
Kodex. Gruppe Chancengleichheit, Wissenschaftliche Integrität und Verfahrensgestaltung.
Universitätsbibliothek
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https://www.dfg.de/download/pdf/foerderung/rechtliche_rahmenbedingungen/gute_wisse
nschaftliche_praxis/kodex_gwp.pdf
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. (2022, 29.11.2022). Nachweis eigener Vorarbeiten (
„
Selbstplagiat
“
bzw.
„
Textrecycling
“
) [Kommentar zur Leitlinie 13 des Kodex
„
Leitlinien zur Sicherung
guter wissenschaftlicher Praxis
“
]. Retrieved 14.07.2023 from https://wissenschaftliche-
integritaet.de/kommentare/nachweis-eigener-vorarbeiten/
Eco, U. (2010). Wie man eine wissenschaftliche Abschlußarbeit schreibt : Come si fa una tesi di laurea
<dt.> ; Doktor-, Diplom- und Magisterarbeit in den Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften. Müller
http://gateway-bayern.de/BV036083198
Energie, B. f. W. u. (2021, 27.09.2021). Zahlen und Fakten: Energiedaten: Nationale und
internationale Entwicklung. Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi).
Retrieved 07.09.2022 from
https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Binaer/Energiedaten/energiedaten-gesamt-
xls.xls?__blob=publicationFile&v=57
Fleischmann, A. (2023). ChatGPT in der Hochschullehre: Wie künstliche Intelligenz uns unterstützen
und herausfordern wird. Neues Handbuch Hochschullehre(110), Kap. A 1.30.
https://www.nhhl-bibliothek.de/api-
v1/article/!/action/getPdfOfArticle/articleID/3700/productID/10/filename/article-id-
3700.pdf
GO FAIR. (2022, 21.01.2022). FAIR Principles. Retrieved 12.07.2022 from https://www.go-
fair.org/fair-principles/
Hagenström, F. (2022, 01.12.). Textrecycling und
„
Selbstplagiat
“
- Wiederverwertung eigener Texte
in der Wissenschaft. Ombudsman für die Wissenschaft. Retrieved 23.06.2023 from
https://ombudsman-fuer-die-wissenschaft.de/9430/textrecycling-und-selbstplagiat/
Hall, S., Moskovitz, C., & Pemberton, M. (2021a, 01.06.2021). Text Recycling Research Project: TRRP
Best Practices for Researchers. https://textrecycling.org/files/2021/04/TRRP_Best-Practices-
for-Researchers.pdf
Hall, S., Moskovitz, C., & Pemberton, M. (2021b). Understanding Text Recycling: A Guide for
Researchers. Text Recycling Research Project. Retrieved 17.08.2021 from
https://textrecycling.org/files/2021/06/Understanding-Text-Recycling_A-Guide-for-
Researchers-V.1.pdf
Harvey, G. (2008). Writing with sources : a guide for students (2. ed.). Hackett Pub. Co.
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