SubJournal Fall 05

Geoffrey G. Smith

Publisher/Executive Editor

Zach Tippetts

Managing Editor

SSuubbJJoouurrnnaall

For Personnel Responsible for Substitute Teaching

Volume 6, Number 1

Fall 2005

SubJournal

SubJournal: For Personnel Responsible for Substitute Teaching

ISSN 1527-9014 is published semiannually (Spring and Fall) by the Substitute

Teaching Institute of the College of Education at Utah State University (STI/USU),

6516 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-6516, to revolutionize the role of substitute

teachers into an opportunity for educational excellence. Postage paid at Logan, UT.

Ordering Information

Subscriptions to the SubJournal are included in the Professional Publications

Package for $79 annually. The Professional Publications Package also includes the

SubExchange, access to online publication archives and SubGuide, and access to

the largest library of research materials with more than 820 articles and

dissertations on all aspects of substitute teaching and teacher attendance. Individual

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delivery is available with payment of the additional postage (rates available upon

request).

Change of Address

Claims for missing or undelivered issues will be considered only if received at

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changes to Substitute Teaching Institute, 6516 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-

6516.

necessary to reproduce a table, figure, or excerpt of fewer than 200 words. Authors

are granted permission, without fee, to photocopy their own material. Copies must

include a full and accurate bibliographic citation and the following credit line:

“SubJournal, title, author, volume, issue, pages, date. Reprinted with

permission of the Substitute Teaching Institute at Utah State University.

Published by the Substitute Teaching Institute, 6516 Old Main Hill, Logan,

Written permission must be obtained to reproduce or reprint material in

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All inquiries regarding advertising in the SubJournal should be directed to

STI/USU, 6516 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-6516. Telephone:

800-922-4693. Rates available upon request.

2 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

SubJournal Contents ..........................................................................3

Book Review List ..............................................................................4

SubMastery: Guided Management for

Substitute Teacher Effectiveness....................................................5

Letter from the Editor ........................................................................7

SubSolutions 2006..............................................................................8

St. Tammany Parish—On the Move from Good to Great

Ellen Lamarque..............................................................................9

Screening Teachers and Substitute Teachers:

Best methods for use in prescreening applicants to predict

post-employment success

Geoffrey G. Smith........................................................................17

The Journey of an Education Service Center

into the Development of an Effective

Substitute Teacher Training Program

Kathleen M. Gentry......................................................................28

A Quick Check on the Pulse of Substitute Teacher Management

Barbara Haines ............................................................................35

One District’s Experience in Creating An Effective Substitute

Training Program

Michael Ballard............................................................................40

A Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development Program: A

Case Study of the Los Angeles County Office of Education

Sue Ann Wheeler-Ayres ..............................................................48

Book Reviews ..................................................................................61

SubJournal Contents

Volume 6, Number 1—Fall 2005

4 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Call For Manuscripts

The SubJournal invites you to submit articles for publication

The SubJournal is a professional, academic, peer-reviewed publication.

The specifically targeted audience for the SubJournal includes individuals

and organizations that deal with issues germane to substitute teaching.

Articles should not exceed 3000 words and should be submitted both in hard

and soft copy, double spaced, using Microsoft Word™. Articles citing

references should use APA format with complete bibliographic references.

For returns, submissions must include a self-address, stamped envelope. All

submitted manuscripts will be acknowledged within two weeks of receipt.

Articles selected for review will receive notice in four to six weeks. All

manuscripts accepted for publication become the property of STI/USU. The

SubJournal reserves the right to edit or otherwise modify articles to facilitate

formatting and publication requisites. Address manuscripts, books for

review, advertising inquiries, and correspondence to: Substitute Teaching

Institute, SubJournal, 6516 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT84322-6516.

Book Review List

The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness

by Stephen R. Covey ....................................................................61

Give ‘Em the Pickle . . . and they’ll be back!

by Robert E. Farrell with Bill Perkins ........................................61

Research into Practice:

Implementing Effective Teaching Strategies

by Alan Hofmeister and Margaret Lubke ....................................63

6 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Letter from the Editor

his issue of the SubJournal highlights three different substitute teacher

programs and how they succeeded in enhancing their programs. Perhaps

the greatest challenge districts confront is moving from minimal training

to an effective training program. These articles provide guidelines how two

school districts and one regional education service center met these challenges.

St. Tammany Parish in Louisiana, wanted to make improvements to their

substitute teaching program and turned the responsibility over to Ellen

Lamarque who created a comprehensive training program. Since April 2004,

more than 1500 substitute teachers have been trained using this program.

Ellen’s article includes the components of the training and how St. Tammany

created an atmosphere that let substitutes know they are valued as a part of the

educational team.

Kathleen Gentry explains how Region 12 Education Service Center in Waco,

Texas, was able to train over 700 substitute teachers. She includes various

marketing methods they used in recruiting new substitutes. Kathy also provides

a background on how they developed their program and the overwhelming

responses they received.

Citrus County, Florida’s, Mike Ballard explains how their substitute training

improved through data collection and involving crucial players in substitute

teacher management. Included in his article are representations of what the

substitute teacher training looked like when it began and what it has become.

Mike outlines the steps taken to improve the training and the keys required to be

successful when implementing change to a training program.

One of two articles written by STI/USU’s staff includes a report from an

informal survey taken this year concerning substitute teacher training. Some

interesting trends appear with Barbara Haines’report. Even with a wide range

of districts responding, similarities appear between small and large districts.

STI/USU has been asked for years to develop an instrument to screen

substitute teachers. With thousands of school districts training substitute

teachers with materials from Utah State University, it became logical to

introduce a screening program that matches the criteria in the training. The

screening article in this issue focuses on the basic skills substitute teachers need

and what to look for in screening. Future articles will be published documenting

results from the participating districts.

The last article is a summary of a dissertation published by Sue Ann

Wheeler-Ayres focusing on a case study in the Los Angeles County Office of

Education. A25-question survey provided vital information for the formation of

a preservice substitute teacher-training program as well as documenting the

discrepancies between claims of permanent teachers and substitute teachers on

what percent leave lesson plans for substitute teachers.

This issue concludes with reviews of books that SubManagers can benefit

from reading. Each of these books provides thoughts on improving substitute

teacher management within school districts.

Geoffrey G. Smith

8 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

St. Tammany Parish—On the Move from Good to Great 9

St. Tammany Parish—

On the Move from Good to Great

Ellen Lamarque

Creating a Substitute Program

ecruiting and retaining substitute teachers is a challenge all

school districts face. Some falsely believe that insufficient

pay is the number one reason for these problems. Research,

however, reveals that a lack of formal training is the number one

contributor to turnover. “The key to attracting qualified substitute

teachers is not to lower the requirements or increase the pay,” quotes

Geoffrey Smith, director of the Substitute Teaching Institute at Utah

State University (STI/USU), “the key is training.” Skilled substitute

teachers have a positive and significant impact on the quality of

education while the permanent teacher is away. They become a

successful partner in the learning process, not just a replacement in

the classroom for the day. St. Tammany Parish Public Schools serves

35,500 students in 51 public schools in southeast Louisiana, covering

854.4 square miles in Southeast Louisiana. Realizing that St.

Tammany Parish needed a comprehensive substitute teacher training

program, the Assistant Superintendent of Human Resources instituted

a new position; coordinator of substitute certification and

professional development.

“In my opinion, a reevaluation of the importance of substitutes as

they relate to the learning process of students, the value of a

partnership with subs so they are treated as professionals and as allies

within our schools, was needed,” said Peter Jabbia. “The Human

Resources Department is working diligently to provide our students

with the best educational program possible and substitute teaching is

an important component of our program. It would be better to take

the time necessary to have a first class program that was meaningful

for our substitutes from the outset, than need major overhauls

frequently throughout implementation of a quick fix to our critical

need for substitute teachers.”

I assumed the role of Professional Development Coordinator in

January 2004. My responsibilities to this program include:

• Developing, coordinating, facilitating, and implementing the new

mandatory substitute teacher training program

10 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

• Implementing continuing education workshops in targeted fields

of education such as special education and specific content areas

• Working as the automated calling system administrator for

teachers and substitute teachers

• Using the information from surveys and evaluations to continually

upgrade the training program.

The Office of Professional Development also oversees

background and fingerprint checks, paperwork and data entry, and

partnership work with schools for all substitutes in St. Tammany

Parish (secretarial, custodial, paraprofessional, food service, and

teachers).

Using 24 years of teaching experience, three days at STI’s

SubSolutions Conference in February 2004, research, and shelves of

workshop materials, I designed a mandated eight-hour training for

substitute teachers. The cost of the training is $25, which was

reimbursed to substitutes after the tenth day substituting in St.

Tammany Parish during the 2004-05 school year. The rational for the

cost of the workshop, which includes a Substitute Teacher Handbook,

is that a financial commitment makes the training more valuable and

more meaningful than having to “give up a day.” Having the fee

reimbursed also relates the message that we want dedication and

serves as an incentive for continued service in our system. The

Human Resource Department mailed 1300 letters to current

substitutes during the 2004 spring semester explaining the purposes,

dates, times, and locations of the training sessions. Memos were also

sent to the school administrators reminding them that all substitutes

must participate in this training session before working during the

2004-05 school year. As a result, many of the preferred substitutes

had reinforced communication to sign up for the mandated training.

Teacher workshop rooms were reserved for Monday, Wednesday,

and Friday in three different locations of the parish to accommodate

the substitutes’ locality in our district. I remained in the office

Tuesdays and Thursdays to oversee all substitute registration for the

school district. The workshop was limited to 30 participants to more

effectively involve participants in group interaction and hands-on

activities to facilitate learning.

As of June 2004, all substitute teachers were deactivated on our

payroll system and the automated calling system. Current substitutes

from the previous school year were reactivated after attending the

training and new substitutes signed up for a workshop as they

St. Tammany Parish—On the Move from Good to Great 11

registered to work in St. Tammany’s school system. All substitute

teachers received a certificate of training upon completion of the

workshop.

Mandated training began April 2004, and as of February 2005,

1400 substitutes were trained to be guest teachers in St. Tammany

schools. As Coordinator of Professional Development, I continue

training on a weekly basis as needed according to substitute teacher

sign-ups and registration. Both at registration and workshops, I

reiterate that substitutes are an essential and valuable part of the St.

Tammany Parish professional educational team, and with training,

they can achieve success in all teaching endeavors.

Much More Than a ‘Caretaker’ for the Day

With No Child Left Behind legislation setting higher standards

and demands on schools, St. Tammany Parish knows that maximizing

each day of a student’s education is imperative. The services of a

dependable, well-prepared substitute are essential to providing

continuity in student academic achievement. The purpose of the

workshop is to enhance the ability of the substitute teacher to be

much more than just a caretaker in the classroom. Implementation of

a training program decreases incidences that cause problems and

increases student learning.

If school reform efforts are to truly improve the quality of teaching

and learning in schools, then it is time to add substitutes to the

community of educators and make fundamental and lasting changes

in the way professional learning is perceived and executed. Strong

professional communities do not occur by accident. Substitute

teachers must be equipped with knowledge and skills that enable

them to build and sustain the St. Tammany Parish school system’s

missions and have high quality interpersonal relationships founded

on trust and respect.

We find that training substitutes makes them feel important,

professional, confident, and valued. One important aspect of this

program is that it has upgraded the status of respect toward substitute

teachers from every level—administration, faculty, students, and

parents. Hence, a paradigm-shift in the belief of the worth of the sub.

Asubfriendly school atmosphere is the result of the time and money

spent to recruit, hire, and train substitutes, as well as implement the

best practices of intensified professional development. This brings

meaningful appreciation for guest teachers who are so important in

maintaining continuity in student learning and success in district

accountability.

12 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Another important aspect of this paradigm shift is the higher

retention rate of substitute teachers. Surveys given to substitute

teachers reveal that the average substitute teacher in St. Tammany

Parish has 3.2 years teaching experience. The hope is that this

number grows as St. Tammany takes a proactive approach to make

substitutes feel valued by promoting teacher awareness of the

importance substitute teachers play in the education of students.

The parish educational television channel aired a documentary on

the substitute teacher training at St. Tammany. News that professional

development is given to guest teachers and that they are considered a

valued part of the educational team has spread throughout the

community.

The Workshop Components

The eight-hour workshop begins with positive reception and

stated value for the substitute teacher in St. Tammany Parish. A

history of the program in St. Tammany, with numbers of how many

teachers and students substitutes help on a daily basis, helps eliminate

the feeling that the workshop day is just one more thing demanded of

substitute teachers. This sets the tone of appreciation and importance.

St. Tammany discusses aspects of professionalism, stressing the

dress code, good work attitude, confidentiality, and language. School

check-in procedures are covered, giving examples of the paperwork

to be completed and suggestions are given to ask for the school map,

bell schedule, bus schedule, and any other pertinent information to

become familiar with the policies, procedures, and practices of the St.

Tammany Parish school system. We discuss the importance of

leaving a detailed substitute teacher report, keeping an upbeat

attitude, and playing the role of motivator throughout the day.

The morning session is completed with classroom management.

We discuss the five skills of effective classroom management as

outlined in the Substitute Teacher Handbook. Each skill is reinforced

with stories from my own and other substitutes’experiences. In Skill

#5, Avoiding Traps (Substitute Teacher Handbook, 2004, p. 24),

workshop participants are divided into groups and asked to teach the

trap. Most of the teaching is done through role-play and becomes

quite creative and informative. Whether explaining the traps using

discussion, giving examples of how to avoid the trap and suggestions

for better teaching strategies, or using a skit to demonstrate what not

to do, evaluations indicate that all substitute teachers appreciate the

hands-on learning activities.

St. Tammany Parish—On the Move from Good to Great 13

The afternoon session is composed of two sections—teaching

strategies and district policies. During the teaching strategy session,

participants take a perceptual learning style quiz that demonstrates

the differences between visual, auditory, tactile and the kinesthetic

learners. The substitute teacher who is given suggestions on things to

do that meet all students’needs is better equipped to keep students on

task.

In this part of the workshop participants also learn teaching

strategies through hands-on learning activities. Participants do:

• A small group brainstorming activity with similes (Ketterlin,

2004)

• Cooperative group activities with Survival in the Desert

(similar to “Desert Dilemma,” Substitute Teacher Handbook

K-12, 2004, pp. 167-168)

• Concept maps (Substitute Teacher Handbook K-12, 2004, p.

42)

• K-W-L charts (Substitute Teacher Handbook K-12, 2004, p. 44)

using the printed activities in the Substitute Teacher Handbook.

• Role-play a jigsaw learning activity with a mathematics pattern

worksheet (Substitute Teacher Handbook K-12, 5th Edition,

2003, p. 231).

• Acarousel brainstorming activity, if time permits, with chapter

5 (Substitute Teacher Handbook K-12, 2004) as outlined in the

“Special Education and Legal Issues” activity in the

SubTrainer Manual (2005, p.79). This exercise is an example

of a kinesthetic and brainstorming activity, and also serves as a

starter activity to policies and procedures of St. Tammany

Parish.

Staff development that improves learning of all students organizes

substitutes into learning communities whose goals are aligned with

those of the school and district. The following is a summary of the

Policies and Procedures segment of the workshop:

• Emergency codes and evacuation routes

• Student check out procedures

• Additional duties

• Accident and medical emergency procedures

• Medication policies

14 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

• The substitute workday

• Audio visual and technology policies

Participants receive a district handbook, which includes

information concerning student discipline, attendance, and special

education forms. Participants watch a video addressing sexual

harassment that all employees of the Parish must view.

Many of the workshop evaluations indicate that substitutes are

appreciative of this part of the day, as they assume the same

responsibilities and duties as the classroom teacher and are held to the

same ethical and legal standards. Sharing this information gives

substitutes empowerment and becomes a powerful motivator for

people who might otherwise feel uncomfortable with substitute

teaching, to get past their fears and into the classroom.

PowerPoint slides are used as visual aids for each component of

the workshop. The visual demonstrations, group interactions, hands-

on learning activities, role playing, and discussion of concrete

examples of lesson plans, both in the handouts and the Substitute

Teacher Handbook exemplify how we want students to learn in the

classroom, and models ways for the substitute to be an effective and

motivating teacher.

Participants leave the workshop with:

• Substitute Teacher Handbook

• Parish School Calendar

• Handouts on Classroom Management and Teaching Strategies

• Policies and Procedures of St. Tammany Parish Public Schools

• Student Discipline and Attendance Handbook

• Small note pad that reads Substitutes: Helping our Schools

Serve Every Child, Every Day

• Certificate of Training

The evaluations have overwhelmingly been positive with

comments such as, “Why didn’t you do this years before? I felt so

inadequate when I first started subbing alone and thrown to the

wolves.” Another workshop participant said the training “eased my

fears and wondering about walking into the classroom situation, and

I feel ready for the task at hand.” One substitute, Dale Oriol, writes,

“I cannot tell you how much I love being a sub. Your workshop was

top notch. Now I know why St. Tammany Parish has such a great

reputation in public education.”

St. Tammany Parish—On the Move from Good to Great 15

Our training program has been extended with two additional

workshops—Everything You Wanted to Know About Special

Education, But Wwere Afraid to Ask and Teaching Strategies and

Classroom Management Scenarios. The first workshop is for the

substitute teacher in the special education classroom. We introduce

acronyms, definitions, and meanings of special education terms

found in lesson plans and on the permanent teacher’s substitute

folder. We discuss teaching strategies and crisis management plans

for the special education classroom, as well as practice

compassionate but firm responses.

In Teaching Strategy and Classroom Management Scenarios, we

enhance techniques learned from the mandated training with positive

and proactive strategies that embrace ten different classroom

management problems and ten different hard-to-present lesson plans.

The volunteer workshops have been well attended and we find our

substitutes appreciate the continued professional development.

Dennis Sparks, Executive Director of the National Staff

Development Council, says that school employees “will choose to

change more readily from the example set by our own transformation

than by any demand we make of them.” We cannot just demand that

our substitutes become more professional and assume the teacher

role. With guided examples of how to be a motivating facilitator of

the lesson plan and a feeling of appreciation from administration and

faculty, we hope to develop a core group of substitute teachers who

love subbing in our schools!

Staff development that improves the learning of all students

requires skillful school and district leaders who guide continuous

improvement. In order to achieve this we have invited our substitutes

to “jump on board.”

Since assuming the role of coordinator of this program, I realize

the enormity of this task and hope to present a road map for our

substitutes that provides directions to a destination, without dictating

the mode of transportation, its speed, or how many rest stops the

driver is to make along the way. The ultimate goal is to increase

learning for all students. With that in mind, we welcome our

substitutes aboard!

References

Fuery, C. (2001). Still teaching after all these years. Sanibel

SandDollar Publications.

16 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Ketterlin, C. (2004) Atraining activity for substitute teachers.

SubExchange Newsletter, 6(4), 2.

No substitute for quality (2000, May). Educational Leadership,

57(8).

Roy, P., and Hord, S. (2003). Moving NSDC’s staff development

standards into practice: Innovation configurations.

Substitute Teaching Institute. (2003) Substitute teacher handbook K-

12 (5th ed.) Logan, UT, Utah State University, Substitute

Teaching Institute.

Substitute Teaching Institute. (2004) Substitute teacher handbook K-

12 (6th ed.) Logan, UT, Utah State University, Substitute

Teaching Institute.

Substitute Teaching Institute. (2005) SubTrainer manual (6th ed.)

Logan, UT, Utah State University, Substitute Teaching Institute.

Wong, H.K., & Wong, R.T. (1998) How to be an effective teacher:

The first days of school. Mountain View, CA: Harry K. Wong

Publications, Inc.

Ellen M. Lamarque graduated from Louisiana State University in

1975. She earned her BS in secondary mathematics education and

her Masters from the University of New Orleans in 1997 and her

Masters in special education/gifted mathematics. In 2001 she

became Nationally Board Certified in adolescent/young adults

mathematics and was also awarded the 2001 Louisiana Educator of

Distinction Award and named Teacher of the Year numerous times.

Screening Teachers and Substitute Teachers 17

Screening Teachers And Substitute

Teachers: Best methods for use in

prescreening applicants to predict

post-employment success

Geoffrey G. Smith

any would do well in the classroom but have never

considered teaching, yet not everyone should be in the

classroom. With the extreme cost of hiring permanent

teachers with limited district resources, hiring the right person, at the

right time, for the right position, is a challenge for districts from the

largest to the smallest.

Substitute teaching is no different. Hiring the right individual for

the right position at the right time is a key component of substitute

teacher management. Who is the right person? What are the

characteristics of the right person? What is the right position? When

is the right time?

Can the same tools used to screen permanent teachers be used in

screening substitute teachers? Should a substitute teacher be

someone who is a perfect candidate for a permanent teaching

position? Are the skill sets the same for substitute teachers as they

are for permanent teachers?

Passing a screening tends to be more endurance than competency.

For example, if a candidate passes a background check and attends a

mandatory orientation, he or she may be placed in the classroom.

Assessment of a substitute’s ability to perform is not even a question.

This article addresses commercial screeners for permanent

teachers and substitute teacher screening recommendations.

Commercial screeners

Currently, several common selection practices are being used in

the United States. Available commercial screeners include:

• Distinctive Competencies of Successful Teachers

• The Haberman Model—The Star Teacher Interview

• The Gallup Teacher Perceiver—TeacherInsight

• Ventures for Excellence

Distinctive Competencies of Successful Teachers focuses on

discovering 13 competencies that a teacher should possess. Trained

interviewers can detect and rank candidates based on these areas:

18 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

1. Commitment—This teacher is committed to having a significant

positive impact in the lives of students.

2. Positive Associations—This teacher has a high awareness of the

power of positive relationships, whether it is for soliciting help or

helping others.

3. Role Impact—This teacher remains consistently aware of the role

modeling responsibility of a teacher.

4. Performance Expectation—This teacher has a high performance

expectation of self and others.

5. Organization/Preparation—This teacher develops plans with the

student in mind.

6. Communicator—This teacher is a listener.

7. Sensitivity—This teacher takes specifically designed steps to

discover what others are feeling and thinking, and at the same

time remains respectful of another’s privacy.

8. Imaginator—This teacher is inventive and innovative.

9. Stability/Objectivity—This teacher’s presence provides a calming,

reassuring effect on students.

10.Climate Focus—This teacher’s behavior, expectations, and

thorough planning provide an environment where teaching and

learning are most effective.

11.Learning Activator—This teacher is enthusiastic, energetic, and

can work long hours.

12.Opportunist—This teacher uses every classroom situation, even

conflict, as an opportunity to help the student grow.

13.Student Focus—This teacher sees each student as an individual,

with many individuals making up a class.

The Star Teacher Interview from the Haberman Educational

Foundation predicts which teachers will stay and succeed, and who

will be unsuccessful or quit. Scenario-based interview questions are

given to provide a clear picture of the candidate's beliefs about

teaching at-risk students. It is intended to predict how a candidate will

perform in the teaching profession. The Star Teacher Interview

questions focus on finding a teacher who will be able to handle stress,

discipline, unmotivated students, and those who learn differently. The

assessment specifically includes (The Haberman Educational

Foundation, 2003):

Screening Teachers and Substitute Teachers 19

• Persistence—predicts the propensity to work with children who

present learning and behavioral problems on a daily basis without

giving up on them for the full 180-day work year.

• Organization and Planning—refers to how and why star teachers

plan, as well as their ability to manage complex classroom

organizations.

• Values Student Learning—predicts the degree to which the

responses reflect a willingness to make student learning the

teacher's highest priority.

• Theory to Practice—predicts the respondent's ability to see the

practical implications of generalizations as well as the concepts

reflected by specific practices.

• At-Risk Students—predicts the likelihood that the respondent will

be able to connect with and teach students of all backgrounds and

levels.

• Approach to Students—predicts the way the respondent will

attempt to relate to students and the likelihood that this approach

will be effective.

• Survive in Bureaucracy—predicts the likelihood that the

respondent will be able to function as a teacher in a large,

depersonalized organization.

• Explains Teacher Success—deals with the criteria the respondent

uses to determine teaching success and whether these are relevant

to teachers in poverty schools.

• Explains Student Success—deals with the criteria the respondent

uses to determine students' success and whether these are relevant

to students in poverty schools.

• Fallibility—refers to how the teacher plans to deal with mistakes

in the classroom.

The TeacherInsight assessment takes about 40 minutes to

complete and is based on Gallup’s Teacher Perceiver. The report is

based on an applicant's responses and includes a score that predicts

the potential for teaching success based on talents. Some districts

incorporate the scores into applicant tracking systems currently in

place. Trained interviewers must interpret the candidate’s scores. The

following are the topics in which teachers are assessed using

TeacherInsight (The Gallup Organization, 2005):

20 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Ventures for Excellence has a 26-question screener that is

administered and provides a probability of success for districts to

formulate and confirm their own understandings of excellence in

teacher attitudes, skills and behaviors. Trained interviewers are able

to clearly identify the teacher's sense of purpose, human relations

skills, teaching strategies, intended learner outcomes, and unique

facilitator skills (Ventures for Excellence, Inc., 2004).

Research focusing on screeners

The RAND Corporation published a study in which six large

urban school districts provided recommendations on teacher

selection processes (Wise et al., 1987). Of the recommendations on

screening applicants, RAND suggests placing priority on:

• High academic qualifications

• Interpersonal competence

• Potential for teaching performance

However, objective measures are imperfect indicators of teaching

performance. A teacher must meet the needs of a particular school.

Therefore, as school districts systemize and rationalize screening

procedures, they should leave some degree of freedom for decision

making at the school site.

One study carried out by Chesek (1999) supported the attributes of

Haberman by comparing 12 teachers who are described as de-

escalators or escalators by their school administrators according to

school violence and the Urban Teacher Selection Interview also from

Haberman. Ahigh correlation is found between outstanding teachers

in the interview and characteristics that administrators find common

to teachers who de-escalate violence and aggression.

Brown (2004) performed a study focusing on the impact of the

Gallup Teacher Perceiver Interview on hiring teachers as perceived

by select administrators in the Alamo Heights Independent School

District. His dissertation notes that a significant correlation was

found between the Teacher Perceiver Interview (TPI) and

• Achiever

• Stimulator

• Developer

• Relator

• Team player

• Responsibility

• Command

• Input drive

• Self-discipline

Screening Teachers and Substitute Teachers 21

administrators’evaluation of teachers in overall effectiveness, which

includes positive student relations, effective instructional practice, a

desire to help all children, and overall effectiveness as a teacher.

He also reports that 96.7% of teachers who were “recommended”

by the Teacher Perceiver Interview were asked to stay as an employee

as compared to 64.2% of those who were hired, yet were “not

recommended” for hire.

Choi and Ahn (2003) from Michigan State University concluded:

...Our conceptual analysis indicates that the different

measures of teacher subject-matter knowledge yield

inconsistent relationships between teacher subject-matter

knowledge and student outcomes. Careful examination of

research procedures is required in order to understand the

findings on the relationship between teacher subject-matter

knowledge and the quality of teaching. In particular, any

meta-analyst needs to develop effective ways to synthesize

findings yielded by different measures. Also, policy makers

should determine educational policy in consideration of the

various approaches.

In a similar study also conducted by Michigan State University,

Metzger (2003) states:

...commercial teacher interviews are very problematic as a

potential indicator of teacher qualification. Not enough

instrument design data is available to the public to

independently verify their validity, reliability, or

effectiveness. Furthermore, their complete reliance on

measuring a candidate’s espoused beliefs and their avoidance

of teacher subject matter knowledge calls into question their

value for schools, which must also be concerned with teacher

practice and content-area ability. On the other hand,

commercial teacher interviews are certainly no worse than

unstructured personal interviews that administrators conduct

on their own. All administrators are interested in the

espoused beliefs, personal motivations, and effective traits of

the teachers they may hire, and they will certainly inquire

about these issues even in an informal, unstructured

interview. If commercial teacher interviews are limited

exclusively to this function then they may provide hiring

administrators with a standardized organization for

identifying new teachers who express a certain pedagogical

22 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

orientation. Of course, there is a distinct possibility that

commercial teacher interviews are no better than

unstructured personal interviews that administrators conduct

on their own—and commercial interviews cost a school

district thousands of dollars to use. Until the validity and

reliability of commercial teacher interviews are substantiated

in studies made available to the public, schools are advised

not to spend increasingly scarce funds on them.

Shirk (1997) concludes that “When discrimination is used with a

continuum of groups, forced into two groups, then the conceptual

model falls short.”

Young and Delli (2002) have the most rigorous, yet very limited

study on teacher screening. Using the Gallup Teacher Perceiver

Interview (TPI) or a shortened TPI to predict success as a teacher, and

a 10-point scale for rating teachers in each by the principal’s

observations (subjective) and absenteeism records (objective). Even

though results are limited, they do provide a foundation for further

research. This research also validates a relationship between pre-

employment decisions and post-employment outcomes. They state

that until further research has been conducted to find correlation

between pre-employment decisions and post-employment

performance outcomes, using the TPI may be the best choice

available. Perhaps the biggest reason is because it forces interviewers

to be consistent between potential teachers.

STI’s Philosophy

From the beginnings of the Substitute Teaching Institute at Utah

State University (STI/USU) in 1995, the focus of study has been on

the skills of substitute teaching. Should the focus be on educating

substitute teachers, or training them? Training might imply skill

labor as opposed to professional labor. Not withstanding that

comparison, STI/USU chose to train substitute teachers; taking

educated individuals who have not been teaching and train them to

temporarily replace a permanent teacher in the classroom.

The roles of the permanent teacher and the substitute teacher are

so different. Even though the permanent teacher is absent from the

classroom, he is not released from his responsibility for his class.

Substitutes however, should only do what the permanent teacher

expects, not what they would do if it was their classroom. Perhaps

many permanent teachers would rather not have an individual with

teaching experience because they tend not to follow the lesson plan.

Screening Teachers and Substitute Teachers 23

So, perhaps a well-trained, skilled individual will succeed better in

the classroom.

Popularity of commercial screeners for permanent teachers might

indicate their effectiveness in assisting districts to choose competent

teachers. However, the effectiveness of any screener is a challenge to

pinpoint based on whose perception substitutes are being judged

against. ASubCaller for example, might want a substitute teacher to

always be available for employment, a principal might want a

substitute teacher to not send students to the office, a teacher might

want a substitute teacher to only substitute for them and no one else.

Sometimes these needs are conflicting. Screening could become

more subjective based on one’s opinion.

“What’s best for the students?” is possibly the best question to ask

during the entire process. Major categories found in most substitute

teacher application processes include educational/professional

background, personal background, and specific competencies. An

employer needs to understand these specific skills to be able to screen

for them.

Skills based approach to screening substitute teachers

Skills screening could be similar between permanent teachers and

substitute teachers. Substitute teachers name their greatest

challenges as classroom management and worrying about being sued.

Administrators desire substitute teachers to be available to arrive

early, be prepared (which includes being flexible), and act and dress

professionally.

Permanent teachers identify their favorite substitute teachers as

those who have a SubPack or a resource kit that they can pull

something out in a moment’s notice. Students claim that they really

want someone to teach them and not waste the day (Substitute

Teacher Handbook K-12, 2004).

Therefore, five basic skills that substitute teachers need to possess

to be successful in the classroom are (Substitute Teacher Handbook

K-12, 2004):

1. Manage a classroom and create a learning environment

2. Teach effective lessons

3. Be prepared and professional

4. Understand legal, educational, and special education issues

5. Use fill-in activities appropriately from a SubPack or resource kit

24 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Classroom management has more to do with self-management,

which greatly increases the probability that students will act

appropriately. The five distinct skills of classroom management are

the ability to:

1. Get and keep students on task by starting the learning immediately

and managing by walking around the room, monitoring students

2. Maintain a high rate of positive teacher to student interactions and

risk-free student response opportunity

3. Teach expectations

4. Respond noncoercively

5. Avoid being trapped

Teaching effective lessons comes from the ability to implement

successful strategies such as brainstorming, concept mapping, and the

appropriate use of questioning skills. The more a substitute teacher

can present stimulating lessons, the less chance students will get off

task.

Being prepared and professional is what many screeners call

“with-it-ness.” Substitute teachers need to arrive early, get to know

the school, and be prepared for any situation that might arise.

The legal aspects of teaching, including substitute teaching, have

become of great interest in recent years. Teachers do not want to get

sued for something that they did not know they were not supposed to

do. Districts are also very concerned that substitutes do not get a

school into trouble. Common sense might not be so common. Also,

substitute teachers need to know how to meet the challenges of multi-

cultural classrooms and those students with special needs.

Fill-in activities need to be used appropriately and in a timely

manner. Substitute teachers need to have an adequate supply of these

fill-in activities for students who finish early, as five-minute fillers

just before the bell rings, or as whole class activities when no lesson

plans are available.

Interview

Live interview questions are an excellent way to determine a

substitute teacher’s ability and understanding of successful skills.

With open-ended questions that allow a candidate to express her own

teaching experience or what she would do if a certain situation arose.

For example, by asking the candidate to describe what she would

do if two students were off task, the interviewer can numerically rank

the candidate’s response whether they responded in a noncoercive

Screening Teachers and Substitute Teachers 25

and positive manner, or a forceful way. Or better yet, if the candidate

describes the difference between consequential behavior and

inconsequential behavior that can be ignored. Acandidate that has not

had any experience might need to be instructed concerning some

skills and techniques then asked how to apply them in the classroom

during the interview. Even though these situations are hypothetical

the interviewer will be able to determine if the candidate has the

desired “with-it-ness.”

Dr. John Nolan (personal communication, June 1, 2005) of

Millburn Township School District in New Jersey uses a 40-minute

interview time with each substitute teacher as a personal one-on-one

training to help the substitute teacher succeed. The interview is more

than a screening, it is an opportunity to instruct.

Online Screening

Since September 2004, Boston Public Schools (BPS) has required

training, an online assessment, and a SubDiploma (Substitute

Teaching Institute, 2005) prior to a candidate picking up an

application for employment. Regardless of prior experience, each

substitute teacher must complete the training, take the online

assessment, and present his diploma to the personnel office. The

school district has set a passing score of 85% on the SubAssessment.

This assessment is an addition to the screening practices currently

being implemented by Boston Public Schools and not replacing any

step.

Barbara McGann, Assistant Superintendent for Human Resources

at BPS, claims that there is “…definitely a reduction in complaints,

terminations, etc.,” since the program was implemented (personal

communication, August 11, 2005). This screening is required by

BPS, yet paid for by substitute teachers.

The SubInstructor quizzes applicants on the skills presented in the

Substitute Teacher Handbook (2004), SubInstructor CD, and any live

training based on the five basic substitute teacher skills presented

earlier.

In September 2005, STI/USU began field-testing an online

screening tool for districts to use. This screening, entitled

SubStrength Finder, is a pretest to the SubInstructor. Questions are

based on the five skills, but are asked without using terminology

presented in the training. The SubStrength Finder was developed

using a committee of HR directors, SubManagers, and administrators

from around the country.

Focus for the SubStrength Finder was placed on the skills of

26 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

substitute teachers, leaving the aptitude-type commercial screeners to

play a significant role in providing feedback for districts as well.

The SubStrength Finder pilot phase will gather information from

participating school districts to determine if the screener helps predict

the candidate’s success in the classroom. Results from this study will

be completed in the fall of 2006.

Conclusion

Paper screening is valuable in obtaining background information

to ensure the candidate meets the educational degree requirements

and does not have a criminal record. Commercial and district specific

interview questions to determine “with-it-ness” by candidates, and a

focus on skills training provides an added layer of screening prior to

candidates entering the classroom.

The use of online screening tools is also an excellent option to

assess skills required by substitute teachers. Online screening

provides districts the opportunity to screen hundreds of applicants

prior to a district spending precious funding on criminal background

checks, personnel time in personal interviews, and training.

References

Brown, K. K. (2004). The Impact of the Gallup Teacher Perceiver

Interview On Hiring Teachers as Perceived by Selected

Administrators in the Alamo Heights Independent School District,

San Antonio, Texas. Ed.D. diss., Texas A&M University.

Chesek, F. (1999). Attributes That Predict Teachers’ De-Escalation

of Aggression and Violence in the Classroom. Ph.D. diss., Loyola

University of Chicago.

Choi, J., & Ahn, S. (2003, April). Measuring teachers’subject-matter

knowledge as a predictor of the quality of teaching. Presented at

the annual meeting of the American Educational Research

Association, Chicago.

Gallup Organization. (2005). TeacherInsight. Retrieved from

http://education.gallup.com/content/default.asp?ci=868

Haberman Educational Foundation. (2003). Star Teacher On-Line

Pre-Screener. Retrieved from http://www.altcert.org/teacher/

dimensions.asp

Kahan, D. (2002). Development and Evaluation of a Screening

Instrument for Cooperating Teachers. The Teacher Educator,

38(1), 63-77.

Screening Teachers and Substitute Teachers 27

Ken Cardinal & Associates. (1984). Distinctive Competencies of

Successful Teachers [Promotional flyer]. Kent, OH: Ken Cardinal

& Associates.

Metzger, S. A., & Wu, M. (2003). Commercial teacher Interviews

and their Problematic Role as a Teacher Qualification. Retrieved

July 1, 2005, from the Teacher Qualifications and the Quality of

Teaching Web site: http://www.msu.edu/user/mkennedy/TQQT/

Documents/CommercialInterviews.htm

Shirk, L. R. (1997). Predictive Validity of a Computerized Interview

Process. Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas.

Substitute Teacher Handbook K-12 (6th ed.). (2004). Logan, UT:

Substitute Teaching Institute, Utah State University.

Substitute Teaching Institute. (2005). Resources for managers of

substitute teachers [catalog]. (Available from the Substitute

Teaching Institute, 6516 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-6516)

Ventures for Excellence, Inc. (2004). Retrieved from

http://www.venturesforexcellence.com/

Wise, A. E., Darling-Hammond, L., Berry, B., Berliner, D. Haller, E.,

Praskac, A., et al. (1987). Effective Teacher Selection. Santa

Monica: The RAND Corporation.

Young, I. P., & Delli, D. A. (2002). The Validity of the Teacher

Perceiver Interview for Predicting Performance of Classroom

Teachers. Educational Administration Quarterly, 38(5), 586-612.

Geoffrey G. Smith is the Director of the Substitute Teaching Institute

at Utah State University. Geoff has been the principal investigator

of research for numerous substitute teacher and science education

projects. He is the publisher of the Substitute Teacher Handbooks,

SubJournal, and SubExchange newsletter.

28 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

The Journey of an Education Service

Center into the Development of an

Effective Substitute Teacher Training

Program

Kathleen M. Gentry

ducation Service Center (ESC) Region 12 in Waco, Texas

trained its first substitutes in the summer of 2003. This

program began based on the belief that training quality

substitute teachers will enhance student achievement. The ESC

vision statement is, “To be the provider of choice for education

services and solutions.” Building upon this vision statement, the goal

for the Substitute Teacher Training Program is, “To train participants

to be quality substitutes, to insure student learning is seamless.” The

substitute training is offered semiannually prior to the fall and spring

semesters. To date, approximately 700 substitute teachers have been

trained.

Hence, the typical scenario is that a substitute is called to teach a

class, but given no training. This is as common for the majority of

school districts in Texas as it is in the entire nation. The Texas

Education Code, under which school districts operate, offers no

statutes that govern substitute teachers. Therefore, the requirements,

training, and qualifications of substitute teachers are up to the

discretion of each independent school district or local education

agency (LEA), and are as varied and independent as the school

districts themselves.

ESC Region 12 encompasses 11,318 square miles, serves 12

counties, 78 LEA’s, 11 charter schools, and 25 private schools. The

majority of ESC Region 12’s LEA’s do not have the time or resources

to train a substitute; their primary hope is that the substitute can

maintain discipline in the classroom.

In the spring of 2003, ESC Region 12 began investigating the

needs and statistics for developing a substitute teacher program, and

found the following:

• On any given school day, up to 10% of the nation’s classrooms

have substitute teachers (Abdal-Haqq, 1997)

• Fifty-three percent of districts nationwide provide no training

(Longhurst, 2000)

The Journey of an Education Service Center 29

• Of districts that do train, only 10% of school districts provide

more than 2 hours of training (Longhurst, 2000)

Based on this research and survey data from regional school

districts, ESC Region 12 decided to begin developing a substitute

teacher training program.

Development of an Effective Substitute Teacher Training Program

In preparing the training program for substitutes, ESC Region 12

discovered several issues regarding substitutes. First, a substitute

tends to be treated as a marginal member of the education

community. Rarely do students, teachers or administrators regard

substitutes as full professionals who meet accepted standards of

practice. Substitutes frequently do not see themselves as

professionals. Classroom management is cited as the greatest

challenge faced by substitutes (Abdal-Haqq, 1997).

Often students believe that a day with a substitute is a day to

misbehave. Other problems include incomplete or missing lesson

plans, unfamiliarity with school or district policies, and a lack of

knowledge of legal issues. The low priority school districts

traditionally place on substitutes and their training is indicative of the

poor attitude of both students and fellow teachers. The same

problems were documented 50 years ago, and the solutions appear as

elusive as ever (Abdal-Haqq, 1997).

Armed with this research, ESC Region 12 selected the STI/USU

substitute training curriculum, which is research based on sound

educational content, and is a result of a U.S. Department of Education

grant. The program was called the Substitute Teacher Educational

Program Initiative (STEP-IN). The six components in this training

curriculum include:

• Teaching and Instructional Strategies

• Being Prepared and Professional

• Legal and First Aid Issues

• Classroom Management & Behavior

• The Use of Fill in Activities

• Creation of a SubPack or Resource Kit (Longhurst, 2000)

Who is a Substitute and Why Do They Substitute?

Identification of the market audience was ESC Region 12’s next

challenge. As an education service center, the market audience had

been limited exclusively to LEA’s, administrators, and teachers. The

challenge was to develop marketing strategies reaching a new

30 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

audience; the individual outside the school world. Knowing who

would be interested in becoming a substitute and be willing to pay for

substitute training was also needed. Another “need to know” was the

expectations LEA’s had for a trained substitute.

In reviewing these questions, ESC Region 12 discovered that

individuals substitute for a variety of reasons. Additional income is

one motivation, such as a stay at home mom with children in school.

Persons interested in becoming teachers want to substitute teach to

see if they enjoy teaching. They also want to gain experience and

make contacts that might lead to permanent full-time positions

(Abdal-Haqq, 1997). Another audience is retired teachers, who want

to be in the classroom but do not want daily responsibilities of

permanent teachers. To be an effective teacher and the ability to

manage a classroom was the common thread that each person

surveyed shared as a concern in being a substitute teacher (Abdal-

Haqq, 1997). Another interesting item to note of persons attending

substitute training are those who work with children in other roles,

such as ministers, child care workers, and lawyers.

Substitutes are not in it for the money. In l989 a study found the

average compensation for substitutes to be $45 to $55 per day,

depending on the school district and local funds. Sadly, these daily

rates are still accurate in ESC Region 12. Larger LEA’s pay a higher

rate, but require a minimum of 60 college hours to be a substitute in

their district. According to Abdal-Haqq (1997), relatively few

individuals work as substitutes more than a year and even fewer make

a career of it. Therefore, the substitute pool is constantly shifting and

school districts need to replenish their supply of effective substitutes.

Marketing a Substitute Teacher Training Program

ESC Region 12 developed a flyer for circulation and a press

release. Since marketing barriers included targeting persons outside

the traditional school realm and informing school districts of the

training, flyers were distributed to superintendents outlining the

topics and dates of training in various areas of Region 12. The press

release was sent to every newspaper office throughout the region.

Due to the vast size of Region 12, the substitute training program was

taken “on the road” to various sites to better serve schools.

With limited funds for marketing the program, the

communications coordinator at ESC Region 12 diligently acquired

TV spots, sent out press releases, and contacted the major newspapers

in the region to visit the actual training sites and conduct interviews.

ESC Region 12 secured free publicity for approximately 18 months.

The Journey of an Education Service Center 31

Even with this limited level of marketing, the remarkably high

response of both individuals and LEA’s indicated the need and desire

for quality training.

In the second stage of marketing, the target audience became

school districts. A brochure was developed listing the benefits for

potential substitutes and school administrators, along with highlights

of the impact quality substitutes have on students. The brochure was

designed to “sell” to individuals interested in becoming substitutes

and to school districts interested in having trained substitutes. This

marketing package is currently being used in newspapers, mail-out

brochures, and television advertisement.

A third segment of the marketing program is the ESC Region 12

Substitute Teacher Web page. The Substitute Teacher page is one of

the most frequently visited on ESC 12’s Web site. Inquiries come

from across Texas and other states as well. For individuals who want

to register online, a registration system designed specifically for

substitutes is available. Development of this system was dictated by

the fact that the normal online registration process was geared strictly

toward educators. Substitute teacher registrations can be

downloaded, mailed, emailed, faxed, or completed during a phone

call. This is a stopgap measure until ESC improves its registration

system to accommodate the new market of individuals.

Evolution of Substitute Teacher Training Program

As the reputation of the ESC Region 12’s substitute training grew,

another unanticipated phenomenon evolved. Several school districts

from Region 12 and beyond began to contract with ESC Region 12 to

present customized substitute training to their districts at their sites.

In addition to the onsite training requests, trained substitutes

requested ongoing education for themselves. Through surveys,

observations, and evaluations, ESC Region 12 believes an evolution

of their Substitute Teacher Training Program will encompass the

following:

• Training in an LEA, charging a fee for one-day trainings (number

of participants must be limited)

• Establishing a continuous contract to train substitutes for LEA’s

on a semiannual basis

• Offering a trainer-of-trainer to LEA’s for their substitute training

programs

• Offering training to the public on a per semester time line

32 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

• Offering training at a site location with an LEA paying a

workshop fee for their potential substitute applicants to attend,

and allowing additional individuals to attend at their personal

expense

• Offering training that requires the LEA’s substitute applicants to

attend ESC 12’s substitute teacher training on their own time and

at their personal expense

One of the newspaper articles in the Waco Tribune Herald, on July

2, 2004, resulted in a related article in the Association of Texas

Professional Educators (ATPE) fall edition of 2004 entitled, “Class

clowns beware.” The focus of the article was the ability of trained

substitutes to manage the unruly student. This article generated many

requests from LEA’s outside ESC’s regional boundaries concerning

the substitute training program. ESC Region 12 determined that a

consistent quality substitute training program across the state of

Texas was eminent. The 20 Regional Education Service Centers

(RESC’s) are basically the same except for the demographics or

location of the RESC. As a part of ESC Region 12’s vision for

quality and consistent substitute teacher training, and the apparent

need and desire for trained substitutes, they developed a trainer-of-

trainer model and offered it to each of the 20 RESC’s in April 2005.

The goal with a trainer-of-trainer for RESC’s was to develop a

consistent, quality substitute training program throughout the state.

Since ESC Region 12’s curriculum is based on the STI/USU model,

Blaine Sorenson of STI/USU was invited to participate in training

RESC trainers. Mr. Sorenson informed participants of the research

used to develop the STI/USU program, and offered his expertise as a

trainer across the United States.

In this statewide training ESC Region 12 reviewed the materials

from STI/USU and presented the research for the development of the

program. Once the research segment was complete, Region 12

focused on the need for consistency in the Substitute Training

Program statewide. To accomplish this vision, they presented the

following:

• Substitute Teacher Training is taught with the same curriculum

and is consistent with the length of training throughout the state

• Materials and certificates are consistent throughout the program

• Marketing of the program is uniform

• Having “product” recognition across the state for Substitute

The Journey of an Education Service Center 33

Teacher Training should be much like recognition of the “golden

arches”

The Future of ESC 12’s Substitute Program

To maintain a high-quality, effective program, and to fulfill the

expectations of substitutes, an evaluation is completed at the end of

each training session. The results of these evaluations will become

initiatives that will drive ESC Region 12’s program as it continues to

evolve. These initiatives include:

• Staff development training for teachers and administrators at the

district where the substitute has received training

• Half-day workshops that focus on one of the main topics covered

in the original full-day training

• Substitute evaluation training for administrators

State Laws are Changing

The primary requirement the state of Texas imposes for substitutes

is that each LEAmust have a background check for every substitute.

The mandatory requirement of the No Child Left Behind Act for

professional development for teachers contributes to teacher

absenteeism, which in turn contributes to the greater need for quality

substitutes. Student achievement, to a large degree, depends on the

continuity of instruction. As mentioned earlier, on any given school

day, up to 10% of the nation’s classrooms have substitute teachers

(Abdal-Haqq, 1997). In highly impacted schools, at-risk students are

spending closer to 13.5% of the school year with a substitute teacher

(Hawkins, 2000), which almost equals two years of their K-12

education. Is it a matter of time before Texas Legislature determines

that substitutes must have training? If so, then Education Service

Center Region 12 will be one step ahead to ensure that effective

education is seamless when a substitute teacher is in the classroom.

Vision for ESC 12 Substitute Teacher Training Program

ESC Region 12’s substitute training program is significantly

successful. Trainees leave the training with confidence and the

capability to handle classroom instruction and classroom

management. However, as with any quality program, Region 12 is

continuing to research ways to enhance their program. The next

objective is to offer staff development that will train administrators

and teachers in utilizing substitute teachers. This training will include

developing a quality substitute folder to extend the continuity of

lessons and maintain discipline in the classroom. When substitutes

34 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

were asked what they want from classroom teachers, their response

was:

. . . good lesson plans with clear and thorough instructions

and an explicit and well-structured discipline system. One

substitute described a good situation: “Good lesson plans and

the names of students I could count on. Detailed lesson plans

with all the materials needed readily available. Included in

the lesson plans are the teacher’s discipline policies, lavatory

procedure and so on (Henderson, Protheroe, and Porch,

2002)

ESC Region 12’s training will also impress upon administrators

that evaluations for substitutes are just as important as for regular

teachers. Convincing administrators and teachers that lessons can be

carried on effectively by competent substitutes will bring full circle

the seamless quality education that children deserve.

References

Abdal-Haqq, I. (1997) Not just a warm body: Changing images of the

substitute teacher. East Lansing, MI: National Center for

Research on Teacher Learning.

Hawkins, A. (2000). Student achievement: Improving our focus. East

Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning.

Henderson, E, Protheroe, N., Porch, S. (2002). Developing an

Effective Substitute Teacher Program. Arlington, VA: Educational

Research Service

Longhurst, M. (2000). Enhance one year of education. SubJournal,

1(1) 40-47.

Mrs. Gentry is the lead education specialist for Career and

Technology programs and the Coordinator of Substitute Teacher

Training Program at the Education Service Center Region 12 in

Waco, Texas. She brings to Region 12 sixteen years experience in

education as a substitute, classroom teacher, school to career

administrator, teacher preparation and certification specialist, Title

I, and Safe and Drug Free specialist. Kathleen Gentry has Texas

teaching certifications in Vocational Home Economics, Secondary

English, Generic Special Education, and Mid-Management

Administration. She earned her BS degree in home economics from

Oklahoma Panhandle State University and her MS in education

administration from Tarleton State University.

Analyzing the Effects of Direct Behavioral Consultation on Teachers

A Quick Check on the Pulse of

Substitute Teacher Management

Barbara Haines

hen a body seems lifeless people respond by checking for

a pulse to find out if the heart is still beating. In January

2005, the Substitute Teaching Institute at Utah State

University (STI/USU) likewise did a quick check on the pulse of

substitute teacher management programs. A five-question telephone

survey was announced for administrative personnel such as substitute

coordinators, directors of human resources, staff development

directors, or personnel directors who volunteered to discuss: 1) topics

district personnel feel are important and should be covered verbally

with substitute teachers prior to employment; 2) areas where

substitute teachers need to improve their proficiency; 3) methods

used by districts to screen substitute teachers; 4) innovative practices

used in substitute teacher management, the source of the idea; and 5)

desired changes in district substitute teacher programs.

In exchange for taking time to share their opinions, participants in

the survey received a complimentary copy of the Substitute Teacher

Handbook, K-12, 6th Edition. Responding from 33 of the 50 states

were 126 participants. Student enrollment of districts ranged from

173 students (meeting in 3 schools), to 209,700 students (meeting in

293 schools).

Prior to employment

SubManagers were asked what topics were covered with their

substitute teachers prior to putting them to work in a classroom. Since

respondents are likely to be aware of the need for substitute training,

STI/USU believes these findings to be somewhat biased. Interesting

findings include:

A. General orientation covering the bare essentials of how to survive

in a classroom and meet the district’s minimum expectations

(36.4%)

B. Aminimum of seven hours of formalized training (27.3%)

C. SubManagers reported that after the necessary paperwork, and

instructions regarding calling systems, the most important topic

singled out for discussion with substitute teachers is classroom

management (18.2%)

36 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

D. State and district mandates, such as blood-born pathogens and

sexual harassment are sometimes the only topics discussed before

a substitute enters the classroom for the first time (11.6%)

Districts did not give reason for the formats they used, nor did they

say if they had asked for feedback from the substitute teachers as to

the adequacy of their preparation prior to entering a classroom.

In the spring of 2000, Smith reported that 90% of the school

districts nationwide provide less than two hours of skills training for

substitute teachers prior to entrance into a classroom. Of that

number, 53% provided no training whatsoever. Responses from this

survey indicate an improvement in this trend. Twenty-seven percent

of districts reported having training sessions of seven hours or more.

However, districts did not specify the time allotment for instruction

in the use of automated calling systems, which might be used by a

district.

Improving proficiency

When SubManagers were asked in this survey, “In which skills do

you feel your substitute teachers are least proficient?” five choices—

all from the Substitute Teacher Handbook—were listed, but only

three responses were given:

• Classroom management—67%

• Teaching strategies and skills—19%

• Legal issues—13%

Regardless of the level of education, even in districts requiring

substitutes to have teaching certificates, classroom management

ranked high. Evidently, certification is not a guarantee of teaching

competency.

Screening

One question of the survey asked what screening methods districts

use to find the best substitute teachers possible. In districts where

online applications are accepted this challenge can be overwhelming.

Screening tools mandated by the state, e.g., criminal background,

fingerprint checks, etc., were used in 22.6% of the survey responses.

Other districts require personal references, past employment, and/or

educational verification. Some survey participants (30.6%) conduct a

personal interview with substitutes prior to hiring. The length of time

for an interview and who conducts the interview varies from the sub-

coordinator or district administrator, to the onsite school principal.

Another screening tool is district- or state-mandated training,

however, only 5.6% of districts surveyed require substitutes to be

Analyzing the Effects of Direct Behavioral Consultation on Teachers

trained prior to employment. Districts using staffing companies to

place substitute teachers rely on the instruments being used by the

staffing company to screen substitutes.

STI/USU continually receives requests to explore the realm of in-

depth screening. Adequate time and qualified personnel who are

sensitive to questions that will not violate personal privacy are the

most common barriers. Solutions seem to be found in relying more

on technology. Online assessments can be used to “level the playing

field” for classroom preparation and rank an individual’s personal

characteristics.

Innovative practices in SubManagement

Survey participants were asked what the most unique or original

practice was in substitute teacher management used in their districts

and where the idea was found. More than 75% of districts involved

in the interview did not feel that they had any “innovative” practices.

Those who did were not always sure where the ideas originated,

however, 40% surmised they came from within the district. Fourteen

percent said their ideas came from STI/USU resources.

Ideas for new policy and procedure can originate from an

organized sub-committee, a Web site, administrators attending

conferences or workshops, and perhaps from substitutes themselves

or those who work closest with substitute teachers.

Changes

The last question of the survey concerned changes respondents

want to see made in their substitute teacher programs, assuming they

have neither budget nor time restraints. Only one substitute manager

wanted to raise the pay of substitute teachers to reward those who did

very well in the classroom. The majority, 62%, said “more training”

was their goal. The meaning of “more training” varied from

enhanced skills training beyond what an orientation session could

offer, to increased frequency of training sessions covering specific

topics such as classroom management and legal issues. Another 16%

wanted help with screening and retention. Both of these goals are tied

to training.

In this fast-paced era of technology, training has become

synonymous with education, and as common as breathing. For

administrators, training can be the reason teachers and staff are absent

from work, thereby creating staffing shortages. Training is also the

way to turn substitute teachers into educators. Substitutes are with

students for approximately one year while they are in the school

system. If students are not learning anything while on a substitute’s

38 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

watch, if permanent teachers have low expectations of what a

substitute can do, if substitutes see themselves as babysitters instead

of educators, it is time to make a difference.

Fortunately, the skills substitute teachers need in the classroom

can be taught. The training methods used should mirror the teaching

strategies SubManagers want substitute teachers to use in the

classroom. For instance, if PowerPoint is the tool selected for

reaching high schools students, then train substitutes using

PowerPoint. If the students will learn best by networking with each

other, then train substitute teachers with cooperative learning

activities and they will know how to implement this strategy in a

classroom setting. When substitutes enter a classroom where the

topic is unfamiliar to them, they should know how to use the K-W-L

technique and act as facilitators, so that same strategy should be used

when training substitutes (Utah State University, Substitute Teaching

Institute 2005).

The survey validated the importance of teaching classroom

management skills. Substitutes can be expected to create and

maintain a learning environment. Behavior scientists, such as Dr.

Glenn Latham (contributing author to the Substitute Teacher

Handbooks), have recommendations to correct 98% of inappropriate

behavior. They are based on the four principles of human behavior,

namely:

• Behavior is largely a product of its immediate environment

• Behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences

• Behavior ultimately responds better to positive than to negative

behavior

• Whether a behavior has been punished or reinforced is known

only by the course of that behavior in the future (Latham, 1998)

These classroom management skills (five are specified in the

handbook) are even more beneficial when permanent teachers and

parents are involved in the process. Parent-teacher organizations can

jointly sponsor and promote workshops and seminars. The same

principles applied to classroom management can be taught as

principles to improve parenting skills. They can be successfully

applied to any age group in any place, but it does take training and

practice (Latham, 2000).

The survey “checked the pulse” of substitute management

programs across the nation and found it alive indeed. No matter how

weak it seems, the heart of managing substitute teachers lies within

Analyzing the Effects of Direct Behavioral Consultation on Teachers

the concern and desire of those who want students to have a seamless

education; those administrators who understand what a difference a

substitute teacher can make.

References

Latham, G. (1998). Keys to Classroom Management. North Logan,

UT: P&T ink.

Latham, G. (2000). The Power of Positive Parenting. North Logan,

UT: P&T ink.

Smith, G. (2000). The Revolution Continues. SubJournal, 1(1), 8.

Utah State University, Substitute Teaching Institute. (2005).

SubTrainer Manual. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Substitute

Teaching Institute.

Barbara Haines is a professional development research specialist

with the Substitute Teaching Institute at Utah state University,

Logan, Utah.

40 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

One District’s Experience In Creating

An Effective Substitute Training

Program

Michael Ballard

ncreased demands on classroom accountability, and on teachers

and students are a reality in education today. Teachers find that

they have to do more with less or equal instructional time. Many

teachers forego staff development opportunities or come to school

when ill because of the pressures for academic achievement.

Reflecting this pressure, the substitute must be more of an

instructor in the classroom than at any other time in public school

history. The daily educational progress of each student, in every

classroom, places increased demands on those who fill the ranks of

the professional educator during a teacher’s time of absence from the

classroom.

Research from the Substitute Teaching Institute at Utah State

University (STI/USU) indicates that one full year of a student’s K-12

years is spent under the instruction of a substitute teacher.

Citrus County is attempting to address the issue of increased

substitute training and effectiveness in the classroom in its search for

highly qualified substitutes. Citrus County is striving to ensure that

every student receives a high-quality education every single day he or

she attends school. To do this, the school district is aggressively

addressing training and the support needed to develop highly

qualified substitute teachers.

What is a highly qualified substitute?

A highly qualified substitute is well versed in the techniques that

produce an effective classroom in which the educational process

continues during the regular teacher’s absence.

In three years, at minimal cost, Citrus County’s substitute training

program has evolved from a very good, 1-day orientation program to

a nationally recognized 2 1/2-day program of training with an

additional substitute support in the form of a continuing education

component. The goal of the training is to produce highly qualified

substitutes who are able to continue educating students during the

professional educators absence from the classroom.

One District’s Experience

The basic question

What can a district—any district—do to improve the level of

training for substitutes at a minimal cost in manpower, materials, and

other resources so that the substitute can effectively conduct the class

and manage the educational processes left by the instructor?

The Citrus County School District

The Citrus County (Florida) School District is made up of 20

schools, approximately 16,000 students, and over 1000 teachers.

Nearly 450 names of substitute teachers are provided to schools at the

start of each year. An additional 200 substitutes go through the initial

training annually. As with other districts, Citrus County’s substitute

program is a revolving door, with many being provided the initial

training, yet many leaving the profession after the first year.

As an education system, Citrus County has worked hard to

provide staff development to its administrators, teachers, and support

personnel. However, substitutes were left out of the cycle of training

after the initial one-day orientation and training session. Florida

statutes require that to qualify as a substitute, an individual must have

a minimum of a high school diploma, pay for drug testing and a

background check, attend a district level orientation, and be available

to the schools. The statutes were recently revised to include

classroom skills in the initial training of substitutes.

After reviewing the needs of Citrus County School District’s

students and how to better prepare the substitute for the classroom,

the Planning and Development Department created a three-year

initial program responsible for professional staff development in the

district.

Year One

The first year (2002-2003) was a data creation and gathering year,

with the goal to determine what is needed to create highly qualified

substitutes for use in the district.

In 2002-2003, the Substitute Orientation program consisted of a

one-day workshop with a locally produced manual titled the

Substitute Handbook. In that workshop the basic “orientation”

procedures were explained:

• Pay

• Health issues

• Legal requirements

• Harassment legislation

42 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

A brief overview by an assistant principal of discipline

procedures, and an awareness session by the Exceptional Student

Department were also included in the workshop.

(2002 One-day Substitute Orientation program)

Feedback was gathered from the substitutes through training exit

forms asking what was good about the training, needed improvement,

suggestions, and questions that perhaps had not been answered.

These data were analyzed during the year, and suggested

improvements made to the program.

The information also indicated that the training was not fully

meeting the needs of students or substitutes.

Substitutes made several consistent comments, including a desire

for increased training days, visits to schools, more classroom

techniques, an opportunity to hear full-time substitutes talk about

what is actually successful in the classroom, as well as additional

training after the initial orientation. In the spring of 2003 a

committee of teachers, substitutes, administrators, and district

personnel was formed. Its purpose was to review and comment on a

proposed sweeping reform of substitute training in Citrus County.

The committee had an opportunity to review a document

summarizing published research in substitute training as well as the

opportunity to review comments and suggestions from substitutes

and administrators about the training. The committee agreed to

increase the substitute orientation to a 2 1/2-day orientation/training

session, to be enacted by the Planning and Development Department

the following school year.

The lengthened training incorporated the following changes:

Day One remains largely the same with orientation and awareness

training.

Day Two includes:

• Substitute coordinators (site personnel responsible for

contacting and contracting substitutes during absences)

• A rotating system of two assistant principals dealing with

classroom discipline and management—one representing

elementary schools, the other representing secondary schools

Substitute

Training

One District’s Experience

• Amorning of classroom activities and instructional strategies

• An awareness session with Citrus County social workers on

child abuse and suicide prevention

• An awareness session for creating an atmosphere of “non-

confrontational confrontation”

The last 1/2-day provides a mandated opportunity for the

substitutes to visit a school, or schools, of their choice. This allows

substitutes the opportunity to meet administrators, the substitute

coordinator, visit classrooms to observe teachers, as well as be

briefed on that school’s procedures for assigning and equipping their

substitutes. Visiting schools also allows the substitute coordinator for

the school to observe and talk with potential substitutes for the

school. The 20 county schools created a staggered schedule of

visiting times for their schools, allowing substitutes an opportunity to

visit several schools of interest.

At the same time, the Planning and Development Department

increased its expending resources in the area of substitute training. A

45-minute video interview of 4 of the county’s top-rated veteran

substitutes was created. The video has been assimilated into the

training and is centered on a series of concerns expressed by new

substitutes. Money was also budgeted for the purchase of 100

Substitute Teacher Handbooks from STI/USU. Sixty of these

manuals were stored for use in the substitute orientation and training

course, while the rest were distributed to substitute coordinators of

each of the schools as a resource for their substitutes. The Planning

and Development Department also created a substitute page on the

district Web site, including information on substitute training,

providing a quarterly newsletter, as well as other resources for the

substitutes.

Additionally, Planning and Development hosted the first ever

Substitute Coordinator Meeting held in Citrus County. Two assistant

superintendents, several principals, as well as the substitute

coordinators, attended this meeting. The substitute coordinators had

an opportunity to express their thoughts, concerns, and frustrations

with contacting and using substitutes. Suggestions brought forth by

the coordinators, who associate with substitutes on a daily basis, were

added to the new training program.

Year Two

As the 2003-2004 school year began, the substitute orientation and

training program had a new face and an expanded Substitute

44 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Handbook, designed to meet the needs of the additional training.

Continued assessment of the new training indicates that as a result of

the training and the visits to local school sites, a higher percentage of

newly trained substitutes were hired and rehired by the schools. The

data also indicate a higher level of comfort by the substitutes in the

development of skills necessary to be a successful substitute teacher

in the classroom. Research and data gathering were continued during

the year. Data gathering methods include exit surveys by substitutes

after the initial training sessions, conversations with substitute

coordinators, as well as a formal survey of all substitutes. The

information gathered in Citrus County indicates that our substitutes

are aligned with the results of nationwide averages in a wide variety

of categories. For instance, flexibility in hours is considered to be

more important to our substitutes—and national averages—than the

amount of money earned as a substitute.

During the year the Citrus County School Board evidenced an

increased awareness of substitutes, providing a pay increase for

substitutes so that the district was equivalent in its pay scale

compared to districts in the state of similar size.

Year Three

The 2004-2005 school year provided additional opportunities for

Citrus County’s substitutes. Ideas from the July 2004 STI/USU

Conference, held in Park City, Utah, were used to create a local,

county-level Substitute Institute. This institute provides a number of

components for additional training of our substitutes in a variety of

areas. True staff development has finally arrived for Citrus County

substitutes. The components were developed in accordance with the

information gathered from previous surveys on the needs of the

substitutes and site administrators. Among the offerings were

additional trainings in classroom management, enhancing student

skills in reading, and promoting effective writing in the classroom.

As word spread, a number of administrators requested that substitutes

be offered training in a new math curriculum the elementary schools

had adopted. Training was provided for substitute teachers.

One of the initial difficulties in the Substitute Institute was in the

area of communication. No district-wide communication method

with all of the district’s substitutes was in place. All of the initial

attendees were newly trained substitutes, contacted through email

addresses collected at the initial training. Word was also spread

through a brochure describing the institute, which was distributed by

One District’s Experience

the site substitute coordinators. In an effort to remedy the

communication issue, the district personnel office offered to include

a line for an email address on the annual certificate renewal form sent

to all substitutes during the spring of 2005. A copy of the email

addresses was sent to Planning and Development for inclusion in the

email database. Next year, communication should be much more

effective between the district and the substitutes.

While attendance at the institute was initially limited to new

substitutes, word slowly spread through the district, and an increasing

number of experienced substitutes attended the trainings offered as

the year progressed. One training a month was offered during the

2004-2005 school year. By the end of the school year, 10% of our

substitutes voluntarily attended at least one of the course offerings of

the Substitute Institute.

During the current year several other accomplishments were made

in providing the opportunity to meet the needs of our substitutes. A

grant was negotiated with the regional community college to provide

encouragement and assistance to substitutes seeking an educational

degree.

Planning for the future

The theme, “You can’t be a babysitter any more,” continues to be

a driving force for the professional staff development being offered

by the district Planning and Development Department. The initial

three-year plan is being revisited, establishing goals for future

development and data gathering with Citrus County substitutes.

What are the keys to successful improvement of substitute training

in Citrus County?

There are several:

• Develop a vision of the needs of substitutes based on the needs

of students. Involve teachers, school administrators,

individuals who contact substitutes, and the substitutes

themselves in gathering data on perceived needs.

• Conduct research on what are the best practices for substitutes

in the classroom environment.

• Involve key people at the district and site levels in decision

making for change.

• Contacting the players—in Citrus County School District’s

case the substitute coordinators, the substitutes, the site

administrators—was a crucial element in creating the buy-in

46 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

needed to change and improve the direction our training was

going.

• Establish an effective communication method with the

substitutes in the district.

• Constantly check on the effects of the changes being enacted.

For further information feel free to check the Citrus County

School District Web site. See the substitute Web page located at:

http://www.citrus.k12.fl.us/staffdev/substitutes

(The current district substitute program.

Oval dark areas are major topics such as Web page

and Substitute Institute. Subtopics are the clear ovals.)

Substitute

Training

One District’s Experience

Michael Ballard has been in the field of education for 33 years, and

is currently a resident of Citrus County, Florida. He was born in

Iowa, raised in Illinois, spent a two-year stint in the Army overseas,

then moved to Florida when offered a teaching position. He and his

wife celebrated their 25th wedding anniversary this year in June,

and have four children (three boys, one girl), and one

granddaughter, with another grandchild on the way. Mike was the

school nominee for Teacher of the Year three times, the Citrus

County Teacher of the Year, and nominated for the Florida

Association of Social Studies Teacher of the Year twice. While

teaching social studies for 30 years at Crystal River High School,

he was noted for innovative teaching techniques and involvement

with students. Mike moved to work with staff development in the

district office in 2002, and currently facilitates not only substitute

training, but also National Board process, the New Teacher

Induction Program, Teacher Education council, administrates for

two online training programs, operates on various committees,

conducts various trainings, and coordinates professional

development districtwide.

48 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

A Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff

Development Program: A Case Study

of the Los Angeles County Office of

Education

Sue Ann Wheeler-Ayres

University of Southern California (Condensed—Reprinted with

permission)

uman resource directors have been closely monitoring the

statistics; the number of college students choosing education

as their major, the number of recent graduates entering

education, the number of teacher retirees, and the number of teachers

leaving education. Is it any wonder that what HRS directors have

seen coming made the October 2, 2000 cover of Newsweek

magazine, “Who Will Teach Our Kids?” (Kantrowitz & Wingert).

In the next decade school enrollment in California is expected to

grow almost 14%, or nearly a million additional students (EdSource,

1998). Just in Los Angeles County alone, estimates are that school

districts, excluding Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD),

required 5000 new teachers for the 2001-2002 school year (Los

Angeles County Office of Education [LACOE], 2000b). There are

currently 9112 provisionally credentialed teachers working in

districts in Los Angeles County (excluding LAUSD).

The demand for teachers in California has many contributing

factors: (a) Legislation passed in 1996 to quickly reduce class size,

(b) enrollment growth, (c) declining supply of qualified teachers, (d)

teacher retention (30% of new teachers leave in their first three

years), and (e) veteran teachers are retiring (more than half of

California teachers are at least 45 years old) (Gaston, Hunt,

Thompson, & Wilkes, 2000). However, districts all over the country

feel the shortage of fully certificated teachers. What happens, as in

Conyers, Georgia when they were unable to fill five special education

teaching positions? They are filled with substitute teachers

(Kantrowitz & Wingert, 2000). Using substitutes to fill vacant

positions depletes a district’s regular supply of substitute teachers.

Staff development days, which take teachers out of the classroom, are

another drain on the substitute pool (Griswold & Hughes, 2000).

According to Shepherd (2001, p.18/1997, p. 117) “Glorified

A Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development Program

babysitting is the term most often used to describe a typical

substitute’s day in the classroom.”

Fullan (1998) states that most teachers identify their transition

period into teaching as the most difficult aspect of their teaching

career. Would it not be logical to assume that the same would be true

for most substitute teachers? When California established standards

for students, raising the level of what they are expected to know and

be able to do, the state also raised the expectations that teachers will

succeed in having their students master sophisticated mathematics

and science, to write well and to speak persuasively (Gaston, et al.,

2000). Currently, school districts in California have an average of

21% provisionally credentialed teachers who are responsible for

having students meet state standards (LACOE, 2000a).

Having fully credentialed teachers has been shown to have a

positive impact on student performance. Why? Because fully

credentialed teachers have more training and experience. As stated by

The Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning, “ . . . the single

most important thing a school can provide to ensure success of

students is a skilled and knowledgeable teacher” (Gaston et al., 2000,

p. 3). Arecent study by the Educational Testing Service (Blair, 2000)

supports this conclusion. What happens when a teacher is absent? A

substitute teacher is required. Statistics document that students are

taught by substitutes for over one year of their K-12 education

(Longhurst, 2000; Smith, 2002), and in the case of educational

agencies that serve at-risk youth, almost two years (Smith, 2000).

Research estimates a national teacher absenteeism rate of

approximately 10%, which translates to 270,000 classes taught by

substitute teachers daily (Smith, 2002). If school districts are being

held more accountable for student learning, how can they afford to

lose this amount of instructional time?

The Los Angeles County Office of Education (LACOE)

recognized the need for a substitute teacher staff development

program, especially for the students served by its educational

programs. LACOE is the largest intermediate educational unit in the

United States and is an actual service provider of classroom

instruction for specialized student populations (LACOE, 2001).

Probably the least known of the services provided by the Los

Angeles County Office of Education are its Educational Programs.

There are three divisions in this section: Alternative Education,

Juvenile Court and Community Schools, and Special Education.

50 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

LACOE serves a very different student population than most

school districts. This population not only requires a dedicated and

knowledgeable group of teachers, but a dedicated and knowledgeable

group of substitute teachers. Currently LACOE utilizes

approximately 125 substitute teachers daily (this number does not

include substitutes needed for staff development days) (LACOE,

2000c).

Statement of the Problem

It is estimated that on any given day, substitutes are teaching 10%

of the nation’s classes (Pardini, 2000; Smith, 2002). It is also

estimated that districts have a 30% turnover rate for substitute

teachers (Pardini, 2000). Staff development training for substitutes

has been shown to increase substitute teacher satisfaction, help

districts recruit substitutes, and appears to be a greater predictor of

success than formal education (Pardini, 2000; Smith, 2002).

When we take into account the influence substitute teachers have

on a student’s educational career (one year for all K-12 students or

two years for at-risk students), and their potential of becoming

permanent employees, districts need to re-examine their status as

marginal members of the educational community. (Longhurst, 2000;

Smith, 2000). Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (1999) suggest that

staff development needs to integrate pedagogy with content.

Substitute teachers must be taught not only the content they are

expected to teach but also different teaching strategies and techniques

they can use to teach this content. A preservice staff development

program for substitute teachers was recommended as a way of not

only supporting substitute teachers, but of increasing the level of

instruction for students that takes place in a classroom when a

permanent teacher is absent.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine the development and

implementation of a research based preservice staff development

program for substitute teachers serving the Los Angeles County

Office of Education. Through use of a questionnaire, the study

measured the expectations of administrators, teachers, and substitute

teachers on attitudes towards substitute teachers, current level of

support for substitute teachers, and communication between

administrators, teachers, and substitute teachers. Additionally, the

study identified key elements of a preservice program for substitute

teachers, presented a model preservice program, discussed state

A Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development Program

legislative influences in this area, and discussed how this preservice

program may be utilized by other school districts.

Research Questions

1. What are the perceptions of staff concerning substitute teachers

and the substitute teacher program at the Los Angeles County

Office of Education?

2. What are the implications from literature, legal mandates, policy

requirements, and experience in identifying key elements of a

preservice substitute teacher staff development program?

3. What issues need to be addressed for this preservice substitute

teacher staff development program to be implemented by districts

other than LACOE?

Findings

Having completed a questionnaire [Appendix A] on staff

perceptions of substitute teachers and the substitute teacher program,

an extensive review of the literature, and considered input from

LACOE focus groups, key elements of a research based preservice

staff development program for substitute teachers were identified.

The K-12 Substitute Teacher Handbook from the Substitute Teaching

Institute at Utah State University was recommended as the basic

“hands on” resource to be distributed to all LACOE substitute

teachers. A second resource book, containing procedures and

curriculum, was also developed for distribution to substitutes by

LACOE.

The LACOE Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development

Program was developed to present key elements to all LACOE

substitutes. Key elements included in the training are: a) Overview of

LACOE, b) safety and emergency procedures, c) required trainings

(e.g., child abuse reporting, sexual harassment), d) curriculum

standards, e) teaching strategies, f) implementing lesson plans, g)

classroom/behavior management, h) cultural diversity, i) learning

styles, and j) communication skills.

New employees receive three days of training specific to teaching

(e.g., teaching strategies, classroom management, and implementing

lesson plans), one and one half days of job shadowing, and one half

day of employee sign-ups. Current employees receive the same three

days of training as new employees but are excused from the final two

days of the program.

This preservice program is expected to have a direct impact on

52 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

student learning. Substitute teachers will enter the classroom on their

first assignment prepared to execute the specific educational program

for that class. Classroom teachers will be expected not only to leave

lesson plans, but also to leave detailed and lesson specific plans for

substitute teachers. Teaching and learning will be an expected daily

occurrence in every LACOE classroom including the classes where

substitute teachers provide the instruction.

Data collected from the 25 questions provided interesting

information on how substitute teachers are perceived at LACOE.

Although all stakeholders identified substitute teachers as an essential

part of the education process, they did not agree on having substitute

teachers serve on school committees. All stakeholders supported

training for substitute teachers but disagreed on how well the three

stakeholder groups communicated once substitute teachers began

working at school sites.

The most important information gained from the questionnaire

was the lack of communication between teachers and substitute

teachers. While 60% of teachers reported that lesson plans were

always provided in LACOE classrooms, only 26.2% of substitute

teachers reported finding those lesson plans. There were also

discrepancies between teachers and substitute teachers in

communication concerning the detail of lesson plans, classroom

schedules and procedures, behavior management/discipline

procedures, and the classroom responsibilities of substitute teachers.

Data from administrators suggested they suspected

communication between teachers and substitute teachers was not

taking place. Data from administrators also suggested that

perceptions of substitute teachers could be improved at school sites

(e.g., substitute teachers receive a warm welcome at LACOE PAUs)

as well as communication between all three stakeholder groups.

Conclusions

A thorough review of the literature provided support for the

development of a substitute teacher preservice staff development

program. This review also assisted in the identification of key

elements to be contained in a program specific to substitute teachers.

That training for substitute teachers is becoming an area of interest

outside educational agencies in California can be seen by the

introduction of state legislation on this topic.

The LACOE Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development

Program has also come to the attention of California State

A Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development Program

Legislators. The LACOE program is specifically mentioned in AB

2269 [the California Assembly Bill which proposes a minimum two-

day preservice training for substitute teachers, allows more districts

to participate, and identifies the substitute teacher training curriculum

utilized by districts participating in the program. Even without the

ability to participate in AB 2269, districts have contacted the Human

Resource Services department of the Los Angeles County Office of

Education inquiring about the substitute teacher preservice staff

development program. Clearly, the direct impact substitute teachers

have on the educational process, specifically student learning, has

been recognized.

Staff perceptions of substitute teachers and the substitute teacher

program at LACOE, as well as demographic information by all

stakeholders, was important in identifying baseline information for

the Los Angeles County Office of Education. Data from demographic

information supported the need for a substitute teacher preservice

staff development program with almost 50% of LACOE substitute

teachers having five or less years experience in education.

Information extrapolated from years in education by administrators

has alerted LACOE Human Resource Services that they will need to

recruit 66 new administrators in the next 1-13 years due to retirement.

All three stakeholder groups realized the importance of training

for substitute teachers. They supported not only a preservice

program, but also staff development for relevant topics such as

student diversity. All stakeholder groups realized that substitute

teachers were an essential part of the educational process. What was

now confronting the stakeholders was how to change the perceptions

and practices regarding substitute teachers employed by the Los

Angeles County Office of Education.

Information that was the most informative from the questionnaire

was the lack of communication between all stakeholders. This is both

good and bad news. The good news is that since specific

communication problems have been identified (e.g., lack of lesson

plans), they can be easily rectified. The bad news is the knowledge

that such primary and specific communication was missing.

Another communication problem identified through the

questionnaire was that substitute teachers had no formal means of

informing the regular classroom teacher and the principal about the

day’s activities. This information resulted in a meeting of

54 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

stakeholders to develop the Substitute Teacher Input Form [Appendix

B]. The draft copy of this form is currently in use at LACOE PAUs

and will be evaluated and revised.

The final communication issue facing LACOE was the support

given to all three stakeholder groups by the Substitute Finder Unit.

Although this unit had a higher absence fill rate (97.78%) than the

national average (95%), they were not meeting the needs of the

stakeholders utilizing their services.

As the Los Angeles County Office of Education already provides

leadership in coordinating programs and partnerships with school

districts, resolving concerns of districts over the use of the LACOE

Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development Program is

expected to be a standard operating procedure. The services provided

by LACOE will allow districts to utilize a Trainer of Trainers model

to a technology based, district specific CD. Utilization of a substitute

teacher preservice staff development program will provide each

district the opportunity to improve instruction to their students.

Recommendations

The area of preservice training for substitute teachers is fairly

unexplored. However, as districts become more and more

accountable for student learning, the instructional time substitute

teachers spend with students can no longer be ignored. Preservice

training of substitute teachers has the potential to produce: (a)

Improvement in instructional delivery from substitute teachers (thus

leading to improved student learning) and (b) increased district

teacher recruitment opportunities during a teacher shortage.

Therefore it is suggested that further research be conducted in this

area.

To reinforce adult learning, staff development requires a sustained

effort. For that reason, it is recommended that a yearly staff

development program for continuing substitute teachers be

developed in conjunction with LACOE’s Educational Program’s

Goals and Objectives and with current staff development programs

for LACOE teachers. In cooperation with the BTSA [Beginning

Teacher Support and Assessment] program, a second

recommendation is that LACOE provide two test preparation

programs per year for substitute teachers for the CBEST [California

Basic Educational Skills Test] (Math AM session, Reading/Writing

PM session). The third recommendation is that substitute teachers

have the continuing opportunity to observe exemplary LACOE

A Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development Program

teachers in order to improve their teaching skills.

Concerning the questionnaire, a second administration of the

LACOE Substitute Teacher Questionnaire is recommended to

document the level of success that LACOE will have had in

improving specific problem areas (e.g., leaving lesson plans for

substitute teachers). Paraeducators are such a large part of the

educational programs operated by LACOE that it is also

recommended that they be added as a stakeholder group next time the

LACOE Substitute Teacher Questionnaire is administered. Since

para-educators are in the classroom with the substitute teachers, it

will be very interesting to compare their perceptions of substitute

teachers to the other three stakeholder groups.

Since this is a case study, it is recommended that the questionnaire

be duplicated in a district setting to determine if the findings are

unique to the Los Angeles County Office of Education. Research in

this area would also provide data on the adaptability of the LACOE

program to a district setting. Finally, it is recommended that a study

be designed to examine the effect of a substitute teacher preservice

staff development program on the level of instructional delivery by

substitute teachers and does this change in instructional delivery

produce measurable results in student learning.

References

Betts, J.R., Rueben, K.S., & Danenberg, A. (2000, February). Equal

resources, equal outcomes? The distribution of school resources

and student achievement in California. San Francisco, CA: Public

Policy Institute of California.

Blair, J. (2000). ETS study links effective teaching methods to test-

score gain. Education Week, 20(8), 24.

Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (1999). How people learn:

Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National

Academy Press.

EdSource. (1998, November). Who are California’s students?

EdSource Report.

Fullan, M. (1998). Change forces. Levittown, PA: The Falmer Press.

Gaston, M., Hunt, H., Thompson, J., & Wilkes, P. (2000). Teaching

and California’s future: The status of the teaching profession.

Santa Cruz, CA: The Center for the Future of Teaching and

Learning.

56 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Griswold, P., & Hughes, W. (2000). School improvement and the

availability of substitute teachers in Ohio: An irony of

professional development. SubJournal, 1(1), 13-23.

Kantrowitz, B., & Wingert, P. (2000, October 2). Teachers wanted.

Newsweek, 136(14), 37-42.

Longhurst, M. (2000). Enhance “one” year of education. SubJournal,

1(1), 40-47.

Los Angeles County Office of Education. (1999). Teach where you

make a difference [Brochure]. Downey, CA: Los Angeles County

Office of Education Communication Department.

Los Angeles County Office of Education. (2000a). Los Angeles

county office of education facts [Brochure]. Downey, CA: Los

Angeles County Office of Education Communication

Department.

Los Angeles County Office of Education. (2000b). Los Angeles

county regional teacher recruitment center [Brochure]. Downey,

CA: LACOE Human Resource Services.

Los Angeles County Office of Education. (2000c). Los Angeles

county office of education substitute teacher staffing [Brochure].

Downey, CA: LACOE Human Resource Services.

Los Angeles County Office of Education. (2001). Directory of the

public schools of Los Angeles County 2000-01. Downey, CA: Los

Angeles County Office of Education Communication

Department.

Maxwell, J. (1996). Qualitative research design: An interactive

approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Pardini, P. (2000). Are you available to work for us today? Journal of

Staff Development, 21(4), 52-57.

Shepherd, R. (2001). Formative assessment for substitute teachers.

SubJournal, 2(1), 18-20. (Reprinted from Clearing House, 71(2),

pp. 117-118 by R. Shepherd, 1997)

Smith, G. G. (2000). The revolution continues. SubJournal, 1(1), 8.

Smith, G. G. (2002). Quick to criticize, slow to train. Education

Week. 21(20), 34.

Sue Wheeler-Ayres, Ed.D. is the Coordinator-In-Charge of Human

Resource Services with the Los Angeles County Office of Education.

A Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development Program

Appendix A

LACOE Substitute Teacher Questionnaire

Sex: _______Male _______Female Number of years in education________

Number of years in current position_____ Number of years with LACOE_______

Directions: There are five possible responses to each statement: 1 = Strongly Disagree,

2 = Disagree, 3 = Not Sure, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree. For each statement circle

ONE response that best describes your opinion.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree

1. Substitute teachers are an essential part of the education process.

1 2 3 4 5

2. Substitute teachers should be evaluated on a regular or annual basis.

1 2 3 4 5

3. A county wide orientation/training program is needed for new substitute teachers.

1 2 3 4 5

4. Substitute teachers receive a welcome at all LACOE PAUs. 1 2 3 4 5

5. Interested substitutes should be asked to serve on school committees.

1 2 3 4 5

6. Substitute teachers are professional educators. 1 2 3 4 5

7. Substitute teachers should attend regular faculty and in-service meetings.

1 2 3 4 5

8. Substitute teachers need to understand about student diversity and learning.

1 2 3 4 5

9. Lesson plans are always provided in LACOE classrooms. 1 2 3 4 5

10. Lesson plans are detailed enough to teach lessons effectively.

1 2 3 4 5

58 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

LACOE Substitute Teacher Questionnaire

Page 2

11. Information on classroom schedules, duties, and procedures is found in

classrooms. 1 2 3 4 5

12. Behavior management/discipline procedures are included in lesson plans.

1 2 3 4 5

13. All substitute teachers should be provided staff development training.

1 2 3 4 5

14. Classroom responsibilities of substitute teachers are clearly defined.

1 2 3 4 5

15. Substitute teachers should use lesson plans provided by the classroom teacher.

1 2 3 4 5

16. Substitutes leave adequate information regarding the day’s events and lessons.

1 2 3 4 5

17. When a school administrator is called to a sub’s classroom, it is a reflection of the

substitute’s management skills. 1 2 3 4 5

18. LACOE policies are clearly stated in materials given to substitute teachers.

1 2 3 4 5

19. School administrators support substitute teachers when they have difficulties.

1 2 3 4 5

20. The Substitute Finder Unit is able to assist me when I have questions.

1 2 3 4 5

21. Communication exists between teachers, administrators and substitute teachers.

1 2 3 4 5

22. Substitute teachers are most concerned with maintaining classroom control.

1 2 3 4 5

23. Feedback from administrators and teachers is important to substitute teachers.

1 2 3 4 5

24. Substitute teachers receive feedback from teachers and administrators.

1 2 3 4 5

25. There are currently enough substitute teachers working for LACOE.

1 2 3 4 5

A Substitute Teacher Preservice Staff Development Program

Appendix B

Substitute Teacher Input Form

To: SUBSTITUTE TEACHER

It is the intent of the Los Angeles County Office of Education to ensure that a quality

educational program continues when the regular classroom teacher is absent.

Please complete the following information and return it to the secretary at the end of the

day. It is our desire to support you as a professional.

1. Your Name________________________________ Date_______________

2. Classroom/Site_______________________ Teacher__________________

Was the following information made available to you?

Site Orientation Yes____ No____

Lesson Plans Yes____ No____

Operational Procedures of Class Yes____ No____

Location of Instructional Materials Yes____ No____

Location of Staff Lounge/Lunchroom Yes____ No____

Location of Staff Bathrooms Yes____ No____

Were you able to implement the lesson plan? Yes____ No____

If no, what can this site do to ensure that other substitute teachers will not have

this problem?

Are there student discipline issues that need to be addressed? Yes____ No____

Are there student behavior issues that need to be addressed? Yes____ No____

Please explain:

What can we do in the future to improve your next teaching assignment at our site?

60 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

Book Reviews 61

The 8th Habit:

From

Effectiveness to

Greatness

by Stephen R. Covey

rom the author of The 7

Habits of Highly

Effective People, The 8th

Habit moves the reader from

effectiveness to greatness. This

book is intended to help the

reader find her own voice, then

directs her to inspire others to

find theirs.

Much of the philosophy

taught at the Substitute

Teaching Institute at Utah State

University focuses on such

ideas of self-discipline and not

classroom discipline. The

principles taught in The 8th

Habit reflect that same

principle, to focus on self and

to control self. Changing

ourselves is the only aspect we

have control over.

For educators as well as

those responsible for hiring

educators, this book has

powerful teaching and

interpersonal skills and

techniques. Covey’s base for

human growth comes from the

four dimensions of a person –

body, mind, heart, and spirit.

These lead to the four basic

needs or motivations—living,

loving, learning, and leaving a

legacy. Each person needs

fulfillment in all four areas.

Whether the reader is a

CEO, HR Director,

SubManager, teacher or

substitute teacher, the insights

in the book can be applied in

his life.

The book is an easy read

accompanied with a unique

DVD with 16 video vignettes

validating what is being taught

in the book.

The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness

to Greatness, Stephen R. Covey,

FREE PRESS, A Division of Simon

& Schuster, Inc., 1230 Avenue of

the Americas, New York, NY

10020.

Give ‘Em the

Pickle . . . and

they’ll be back!

by Robert E. Farrell with Bill

Perkins

ublic education is all

about public service,

specifically how we treat

ourselves, students, and

employees. If you are looking

for examples and/or principles

of how to and how not to treat

employees, read Robert E.

Farrell’s account of an

absolutely certain way to build

your business and live a happier

62 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

life. Although these are

examples from a business

application, many of the

vignettes can be applied to

working with employees and

students in education.

Mr. Farrell relates the story

of a customer who had

frequented his restaurant for

over three years, always

ordering the #2 hamburger, a

chocolate shake, and an extra

pickle on the side. One day he

placed his usual order and

received no pickle on the side.

When the customer inquired as

to why NO PICKLE, he was

told he could have one for

$1.25. But he had always

received the extra pickle. The

waitress consulted the manager

and informed the customer that

she would sell him a pickle for

a nickel. The customer told the

waitress what to do with the

order and informed Mr. Farrell

by letter that he would not be

returning to the restaurant if

that’s the way he was going to

run it.

Fortunately for Mr. Farrell,

the disgruntled customer signed

his name and included his

address on the letter. Mr.

Farrell wrote back and enclosed

a card for a free hot fudge

sundae and assured him he

didn’t run his business that way,

apologized, and asked him to

please come back.

Ayear later Mr. Farrell was

checking in his baggage for

travel at the airport and was

asked by a young man if he

worked for Farrell’s. He

indicated he did and was told

by the young man that he used

to go to the restaurant and

wrote a letter to Mr. Farrell

complaining about no pickle.

Mr. Farrell thanked him for

writing the letter and assured

the young man that his letter

had a far bigger impact than he

ever imagined.

In education the pickle could

be staff development

opportunities for teachers.

Don’t give and then take back!

If there is a message here, it’s

the importance of giving away

pickles. The secret of running a

good business is the willingness

to “Give ‘em the pickle.” Of

course, that means you have to

know what the pickle is in your

business. In education, what

are pickles? What attracts and

keeps customers satisfied?

Additional principles to be

mastered are the value of the

customer, care for your

employees, hire the best

managers in the business, do

the little things that make an

impression, and win their

loyalty with your service.

Mr. Farrell asks us to think

about this. Atypical business

hears from only four percent of

Book Reviews 63

its dissatisfied customers. The

other 96% just quietly go away

and 91% never return. A

typical dissatisfied customer

will tell 8 to 10 people about

his problem. One in five will

tell 20 people. It takes 12

positive service incidents to

make up for 1 negative

incident. Seven out of 10

complaining customers will do

business with you again if you

resolve the complaint in their

favor. If you resolve it on the

spot, 95% will do business with

you again. On average, a

satisfied customer will tell five

people about the problem and

how it was satisfactorily

resolved. One thing is clear;

the best marketing takes place

inside our businesses.

Give ‘Em the Pickle has

business practices that have

educational implications and

applications. The book is easy

to read and we could say,

“What’s in your wallet when it

comes to student and employee

relations?”

Give ‘Em the Pickle . . . and they’ll

be back!, Robert E. Farrell with

Bill Perkins, Give ‘Em the Pickle

Co, Home Office, 4120 N.E.

Beaumont Street, Portland, OR

97212, (503) 282-5102,

www.giveemthepickle.com

Research into

Practice:

Implementing

Effective Teaching

Strategies

by Alan Hofmeister and Margaret

Lubke

question each

outstanding teacher

should ask each and

every day, whether permanent

or substitute teacher, is “What

am I doing for my students?”

The research and implications

presented in Research into

Practice is based on what is

best for students. By

evaluating one’s performance in

the classroom, a teacher can

improve instruction, thus

improving student achievement.

Dr. Hofmeister presents

methods to assess

understanding of the knowledge

and self-evaluation in five

areas:

• Time management

• Teaching functions

• Academic feedback

• Academic monitoring

• Classroom management

Each chapter focuses on one

of these areas by presenting

background research and

understandings, methods to

64 SubJournal Vol. 6, No. 1

evaluate one’s own

performance, and methods for

improvement. As stated in the

book, “The professional teacher

has an obligation to engage in

the following activities; a.

Review the recommendations

from the effective teaching

literature, b. compare present

classroom practices against the

recommendations, c. implement

changes, and d. evaluate the

extent to which the changes are

consistent with the effective

teaching literature.”

Effective teachers maximize

the time students are involved

in learning activities.

Managing time effectively

requires understanding of time

management concepts including

available time, allocated time,

engaged time, academic

learning time, pacing, transition

time, and instructional

momentum.

Teaching function concepts

include daily reviews and

prerequisite checks,

presentation of new content,

guided practice, independent

practice, and weekly and

monthly reviews.

Academic feedback concepts

include feedback opportunities,

question types, delivering the

questions, and reaction to

student responses.

Academic monitoring

concepts include monitoring

and goals, instructional

programs and embedded

progress tests, decision-making

and corrective action,

monitoring and improving of

instruction, instructional

alignment, adaptive ability, and

mastery testing.

Classroom management

concepts include instructional

strength, setting and

implementing rules, managing

interventions, increasing

appropriate behavior, and

reducing reprimands and

punishments.

The strength of this book

lies in its ability to help the

reader to understand the

concepts, put them into

practice, and then evaluate the

effectiveness of the concepts in

teaching.

Research into Practice:

Implementing Effective Teaching

Strategies, Alan Hofmeister and

Margaret Lubke, Allyn and Bacon,

A Division of Simon & Schuster,

Inc., 160 Gould Street, Needham

Heights, MA 02194.